ANTIOCHUS ăn tī’ ə kəs (̓Αντίοχος, meaning opposer, withstander). A favorite name of the Seleucid kings of Syria from 280 b.c. onward.

1. Antiochus I (Soter) (324-261 b.c.), son of Seleucus I (see Seleucus), founder of the dynasty, and the Bactrian Apama. He was jointking with his father from 293/2 b.c. until he became the sole ruler in 281 b.c. He became known for his defense of Asia Minor against the invasion of the Gauls from which he earned his title Soter (“Savior”) and was considered the greatest founder of cities since Alexander the Great. He lost important districts of Asia Minor and Syria to Ptolemy II Philadelphus (see Ptolemy) during the “First Syrian War” (274-271 b.c.). He was slain in a battle against the Gauls in Asia Minor in 261 b.c.

2. Antiochus II (Theos) (286-246 b.c.), second son of Antiochus I and Stratonice. His reign commenced in 261 b.c. Although many facets of his life are indeed obscure it seems that he, with the help of Antigonus II Gonatas of Macedonia, attacked Ptolemy II Philadelphus (see Ptolemy) and regained much of what Antiochus I had lost, viz., the coast of Asia Minor and districts of Coele-Syria. This is called the Second Syrian War which went from 260 to 253. In the midst of this war a self-willed Timarchus made himself tyrant of Miletus and plundered the people. In 258 b.c. Antiochus defeated Timarchus, and the Milesians in gratitude for the victory surnamed him Theos (a god) (Appian The Syrian Wars 65). A brilliant political triumph was accomplished by Ptolemy when in 253 b.c. Antiochus agreed to marry Ptolemy’s daughter, Berenice, on the condition that he get rid of his first wife, Laodice (Appian The Syrian Wars 65; Dan. 11:6), with the understanding that the kingdom should go to Berenice’s son. On the part of Ptolemy this was a diplomatic master-stroke but it is incomprehensible why Antiochus agreed to it. The marriage was consummated in 252 b.c. and hence there was peace between the Seleucids and the Ptolemies but this was short-lived because both Antiochus and Ptolemy died in 246 b.c. Their sons had not the mutual feelings of friendship that their fathers had.

3. Antiochus III (The Great) (242-187 b.c.), the second son of Seleucus II and grandson of Antiochus II and Laodice, succeeded his older brother Seleucus III Soter who was assassinated in 223 b.c. With fragmentation in the kingdom (Bactria and Parthia) and threats of this spreading to Media, Persia, and Asia Minor, his order was consolidation and then expansion. With the accession of Ptolemy IV Philopater (see Ptolemy) in 221 b.c., Antiochus invaded Lebanon in an attempt to wrest Pal. from his rival (“Fourth Syrian War”). He was stopped by the strong line of defense erected by Ptolemy’s general Theodotus near Gerrha (c. thirty m. NW of Damascus). Antiochus made a second attempt, driving the Egyptians southward and capturing Seleucia (near Antioch). In 218 b.c. he captured Tyre and Ptolemais as well as inland cities all the way from Philoteria to Philadelphia, and then returned to Ptolemais and spent his winter of 218-217 b.c. there. In 217 he pushed southward as far as Raphia (near Gaza) where he was utterly defeated, leaving Ptolemy IV in undisputed control of Coele-Syria and Phoenicia (Polybius v. 51-87; Dan 11:11, 12). Following this he concentrated his warfare in the E (212-206 b.c.) acquiring Armenia and regaining Parthia and Bactria as vassal kingdoms which gained him, like Alexander, the title of “Great.”

With the death of Ptolemy IV in 203 b.c., who was succeeded by his son (five to seven years of age), Antiochus saw his opportunity to take Coele-Syria from Egypt and in 202 b.c. made a pact with Philip V of Macedon for a division of Egypt between the two powers (Livy xxxi. 14. 5). In 201 b.c. he invaded Pal. and after great difficulty captured Gaza. Having secured Pal. Antiochus invaded the dominions of Attalus, king of Pergamos (who was pro-Rom. against Philip V), in the winter of 199-198 b.c. Scopas, an Egyp. general, hearing of Antiochus’ absence invaded Pal. and recovered the lost territories. Antiochus returned to oppose Scopas and at Panias (NT Caesarea Philippi) Ptolemy IV was decisively defeated (Jos. Antiq. xii. 3. 3 § 131-133; Polybius xvi. 18-19; xxviii. 1; Dan 11:14-16). He granted the Jews the freedom to worship according to their laws; allowed them to complete and maintain the Temple; exempted the council of elders, priests, and the scribes of the Temple from taxes, which exemption the citizens of Jerusalem enjoyed for the first three years and after that period they were exempted a third part of their taxes; and released the prisoners (Jos. Antiq. xii. 3. 3-4 § 138-153). The Battle of Panias marked a turning point in Jewish history, for from this time until the Rom. control in 63 b.c. they remained connected with the Seleucid dynasty. Under the Ptolemaic rule the Jews were treated with considerable tolerance but after only a brief period of tranquility under the Seleucid rule the Jews experienced fierce persecution.

At the turn of the cent. Rome began to play an important part with the Seleucid house. Rome defeated Hannibal at Zama (near Carthage) in 202 b.c., the Macedonian monarchy in 197 b.c., and now she concentrated on the Seleucids. In the light of the new threat Antiochus discontinued his war with Egypt and made a treaty with Ptolemy V Epiphanes in which the latter married Antiochus’ daughter, Cleopatra, with the idea that her son/his grandson would be the next king of Egypt and would be partial to the Seleucids (Polybius xxviii. 20; Appian The Syrian Wars 5; Jos. Antiq. xii. 4. 1 § 154; Dan 11:17). Antiochus went westward and invaded Thrace in 196 b.c. and with Hannibal’s influence he invaded Greece (which the Romans had evacuated) in 194 b.c.; but the Romans retaliated, defeating him at Thermopylae in 191 b.c. and at Magnesia in Asia Minor 190 b.c. In the peace treaty signed at Apamea in 189 b.c. Antiochus agreed to give up Asia Minor N and W of the Tarsus Mountains, much of his military force, and pay a heavy indemnity over a twelve year period. He had to deliver twenty hostages to Rome until the indemnity was paid, one of the hostages being his son, Antiochus IV Epiphanes (Appian The Syrian Wars 36-39; Polybius xx-xxi; Livy xxxvi-xxxvii; Dan 11:18, 19; 1 Macc 1:10; 8:6-8; Jos Antiq. xii. 10. 6 § 414). In 187 b.c. Antiochus III died in a rebellion. He was succeeded by his son Seleucus IV Philopater (see Seleucus).

4. Antiochus IV (Epiphanes) (215-163 b.c.), third son of Antiochus III, succeeded his brother, Seleucus IV Philopater (see Seleucus), as king in 175 b.c. After being in Rome fourteen years as a hostage in 176/175 b.c. his nephew Demetrius I (second son of Seleucus IV) took his place and Antiochus went to Athens where after a short time he was appointed chief magistrate. In 175 b.c. his brother Seleucus IV was murdered by his chief minister Heliodorus, and upon hearing the news Antiochus, with the help of Eumenes II, king of Pergamon, ousted Heliodorus and made himself king. His newly acquired kingdom lacked political and financial stability. To heal the political factions within his domain, he attempted to unify them by a vigorous program of hellenization (Tac. Hist. v. 8). Religion was one of the unifying factors, and although he was no monotheist, he was favorable to the Olympian Zeus and c. 169 b.c. he even encouraged people to worship his own person in the form of Zeus (Dan 11:21-24). Hence he assumed the title Theos Epiphanes meaning “the manifest God” but some of his enemies called him Epimanes (which requires only one letter change in the Gr. spelling ἐπιφανής, G2212, to ἐπιμανής) meaning “mad man” or “insane” (Polybius xxvi. 10). Soon after Antiochus’ accession he was called upon to settle a dispute between the high priest Onias III who was pro-Ptolemaic and Onias’ brother Jason (Gr. name which preferred over the Heb. name Joshua/Jesus) who was pro-Seleucid. In 174 b.c. Jason secured the high priesthood by a larger payment of money to Antiochus and by pledging his wholehearted support to the Hellenizing of the Jerusalemites (1 Macc 1:10-15; 2 Macc 4:7-17; Jos. Antiq. xii. 5. 1 § 237-241). Jason asked if he would be permitted to build a gymnasium in Jerusalem for Jew ish youth in order to introduce them to Gr. games and customs. Of course, Antiochus immediately agreed to all of this, for it would not only further his Hellenization program, but also help him line the Seleucid’s coffers which were depleted at least in part by his father’s payment of the heavy indemnity to Rome. Three years later (171 b.c.) Jason sent Menelaus to Antiochus with money he owed to the king. Menelaus seized the opportunity by pledging to Antiochus a more vigorous Hellenization program and offering 300 more talents than Jason was able to give. Antiochus accepted this, for it meant not only more money which he needed, but also, since Menelaus was outside the priestly Aaronic line (according to 2 Macc. 4:23 and 3:4 he was a Benjamite), it would break a great unifying factor among the Jews and it would allow the Seleucids to select high priests at will. Jason fled to the Ammonite country. In a desperate need of money Menelaus robbed the temple treasury of a number of golden vessels, selling some and giving others to Andronicus, Antiochus’ deputy in Antioch, as a bribe. The legitimate high priest Onias III, who was still in Antioch, protested against these actions, and Menelaus urged Andronicus to kill Onias (2 Macc 4:31-34).

In 170 b.c. the amateur regents Eulaeus and Lenaeus advised their minor king Ptolemy VI Philometor (see Ptolemy) to avenge Panias and recover Coele-Syria. But Antiochus got wind of these plans and with a large army invaded Egypt in 170/169 b.c., defeating Ptolemy VI Philometor, and then proceeded to Memphis where he proclaimed himself king of Egypt. Antiochus then went to Alexandria and besieged it (169 b.c.). Arrangement was made whereby Ptolemy VI Philometor was king in Memphis and his brother Ptolemy VIII Euergetes king in Alexandria. Hoping that Egypt would remain paralyzed by the rivalry of the two brother kings (Dan 11:25-27), Antiochus left Egypt to return to Syria. However, when Antiochus was in Egypt, new troubles broke out in Jerusalem. Menelaus plundered the Temple and the people began to riot. In addition there was rumor that Antiochus was killed in Egypt and so Jason came out of his hiding in Trans-Jordan and attacked Jerusalem compelling Menelaus to take refuge in the Acra. Unwisely Jason massacred many innocent people and consequently he was driven out of the city and took refuge again in Trans-Jordan (2 Macc 4:39-5:10). Antiochus learned of this trouble on his way back from Egypt and decided to subdue Jerusalem (2 Macc 5:11-17). He felt that the Jews’ rebellion against Menelaus was a rebellion against his own authority. With Menelaus he desecrated and plundered the Temple of its treasure leaving the city under one of his military commanders, Philip, a Phrygian (1 Macc. 1:20-29; 2 Macc. 5:18-22; Jos. Antiq. xii. 5. 3 § 246-247).

In the winter of 168-169 b.c. the two brothers in Egypt agreed to unite as joint-kings against their uncle Antiochus. Inevitably Antiochus went to Egypt in the spring of 168 b.c. The Ptolemaic kingdom was in no shape to offer much resistance. Antiochus marched to Memphis and from there he again went to Alexandria. However, before he could subdue Alexandria the Rom. representative Popillius Laenas, whom he had known at Rome, handed him (at Eleusis, suburb of Alexandria) an ultimatum from the senate to evacuate Egypt within a certain number of days (Rome was not able to come to Egypt before because of its involvement in the Third Macedonian War—171-168). Antiochus wanted time for consideration but the Rom. legate arrogantly drew with his walking stick a circle in the sand around Antiochus and demanded his answer before he stepped outside the circle. Having become acquainted with Rom. power when he was a hostage in Rome for fourteen years, he agreed to evacuate (Polybius xxix. 2. 1-4; 27. 1-8; Livy xlv. 12. 1-6; Diodorus xxxi. 2; Velleius Paterculus i. 10. 1-2; Appian The Syrian Wars 66, Justinus Epitome xxxiv. 3; Dan. 11:28-30). With bitterness he retracted to Pal. (Polybius xxix. 27. 9; Dan 11:30). He was determined to make sure that Pal. was loyal to himself in order to act as a buffer state between himself and the Romans. Considering himself Zeus Epiphanes he ordered a cultic Hellenization policy in Pal. Antiochus sent his general Apollonius with 22,000 soldiers, who came under the pretense of peace, attacked Jerusalem on the Sabbath, knowing that orthodox Jews would not fight, and killed many people. Women and children were taken as slaves, and the city was plundered and burned. Shortly afterward, in 167 b.c., Antiochus determined to exterminate the Jewish religion by forbidding them to live in accordance with their ancestral laws. He forbade the observance of the Sabbath, cu stomary festivals, traditional sacrifices, and the circumcision of children, and ordered that copies of the Torah must be destroyed. Idolatrous altars were set up and the Jews were commanded to offer unclean sacrifices and to eat swine’s flesh (2 Macc. 6:18). Anyone who disobeyed any of these orders was sentenced to death. The climactic infamous deed was on Chislev 25 (16 December 167 b.c.) when the Temple in Jerusalem (as well as the Samaritan temple at Mt. Gerizim) became the place of the worship of the Olympian Zeus, offering swine’s flesh on the altar of Zeus which was erected on the altar of burnt offering (Dan 11:31, 32; 1 Macc 1:41-64; 2 Macc 6:1-11). These were to be offered on the twenty-fifth of every month since that date was celebrated as the birthday of Epiphanes, hence the sacrifices were offered to him. All of this was a big mistake on Antiochus’ part. He wanted to consolidate his empire around the Hellenic culture and religion, thinking that the Jewish religious eccentricities were party to the Ptolemaic dynasty. He never realized the significance of the Jewish religion. His actions sparked the Maccabean revolution begun at Modein by Mattathias (Dan 11:32-35) and continued by his son Judas surnamed Maccabeus (see Maccabees). Antiochus heard of the revolt and would no doubt have come in person to exterminate the Maccabees but he had more serious troubles in Armenia and Persia, viz., insurrection and withholding of taxes (Jos. Antiq. xii. 7. 2 § 293-295; Diodorus xxxi. 17a; Appian The Syrian Wars 45). Consequently, in 165 b.c. he ordered Lysias, regent of the western part of his empire and guardian of his son (1 Macc 3:32), to make an end of the rebellion and destroy the Jewish race (1 Macc 3:32-36; Jos. Antiq. xii. 7.2 § 295-296). Lysias dispatched a large army under the command of Ptolemy, Nicanor, Gorgias followed by merchants who expected to purchase Jewish slaves (1 Macc 3:38-41). However, Judas decisively defeated Gorgias at Emmaus causing the Syrian soldiers to flee (1 Macc 4:1-22; Jos. Antiq. xii. 7. 4 § 305-312). In 164 b.c. Lysias personally led a larger army and attacked Jerusalem from the S but was completely defeated at Beth-zur (1 Macc 4:28-35; Jos. Antiq. xii 7. 5 § 313-315). Judas had regained the entire country of Judea except the Acra in Jerusalem and refurbished and rededicated the temple, restoring the daily sacrifices in Chislev 25 (14 December 164 b.c.)—exactly three years to the day of its desecration (1 Macc 4:47-59; 2 Macc 10:1-8; Jos. Antiq. xii. 7. 6-7 § 316-326). This marked the commencement of the Jewish Feast of Dedication (or Lights) (Heb., Hanukkah) (cf. John 10:22).

Antiochus was further enraged to the point of madness upon hearing of Judas’ successes. In his desperate need of funds, he attempted to plunder the temple of Nanaea/Artemis in Elymais but was unsuccessful and was able to escape with his life (unlike his father). He withdrew and died insane in Tabae/Gabae, Persia in the spring/summer of 163 b.c. (Polybius xxxi. 9; Appian The Syrian Wars 66; Diodorus xxxi. 18a; Jos. Antiq. xii. 9. 1-2 § 354-361; 1 Macc 9:1-29; 2 Macc 6:1-17).

5. Antiochus V (Eupator) (173-162 b.c.), succeeded his father at nine years of age (Appian The Syrian Wars 66). He had been under the guardianship of Lysias, regent of the western part of the Seleucid empire (1 Macc 3:32), but Antiochus on his deathbed appointed Philip as regent and guardian of Antiochus V. Upon hearing this Lysias set Antiochus V up as king and named him Eupator (“born of a noble father”). Because of Judas Maccabeus’ siege of the Acra, Lysias and the boy-king went S defeating Judas at Beth-zechariah (SW of Jerusalem) and laid siege to Jerusalem (1 Macc 6:28-54). Fortunately for Judas, Lysias heard that Philip was marching from Persia to Syria to claim the kingdom for himself and so Lysias was anxious to make a peace treaty with Judas. He guaranteed religious freedom but did not tear down the walls of Jerusalem (1 Macc 6:55-63). Lysias left for Antioch and Philip was easily defeated. In 162 b.c. Demetrius I Soter, second son of Seleucus IV and nephew of Antiochus IV (who became a hostage in Rome when Antiochus IV was released) and cousin of Antiochus V, escaped from Rome, seized and put to death both Lysias and Antiochus V (1 Macc 7:1-4; 2 Macc 14:1, 2; Jos. Antiq. xii. 10. 1 § 389, 390; Polybius xxxi. 11; Appian The Syrian Wars 46, 47, 67; Livy Epitomy 46).

6. Antiochus VI (Epiphanes Dionysus) (148-142 b.c.), son of Alexander Balas (see Alexander) and Cleopatra Thea (daughter of Ptolemy VI—see Cleopatra). Demetrius II Nicator assassinated Alexander Balas in 145 b.c. and took over the Syrian throne. Since he was young and inexperienced, Jonathan (see Jonathan), who was confirmed as high priest, demanded and received many concessions from him. Being weakened by these concessions and having troubles within his own army, a general of Alexander Balas, Diodotus Tryphon claimed the Syrian throne for Alexander’s son, Antiochus VI in 145 b.c. Jonathan took advantage of the situation and sided with Tryphon who in turn made Jonathan head of the civil and religious aspects and his brother Simon head of the military. However, Tryphon was embarrassed by Jonathan’s success in subduing the whole country from Damascus to Egypt, so by deceit he imprisoned Jonathan and later put him to death (143 b.c.) and procured an assassination of Antiochus VI by surgeons in an operation in 142 b.c. (1 Macc 11:1-13:31; Jos. Antiq. xiii. 4. 4-7. 1 § 109-219).

7. Antiochus VII (Sidetes) (159-129 b.c.), second son of Demetrius I had grown up in the Pamphylian city of Side, hence his surname. He heard that his older brother Demetrius II was captured by the Parthians in 139 b.c. In trying to gain a foothold in Syria, Antiochus VII asked for the allegiance of Simon by confirming to him immunities granted by other kings and adding the right to coin money (1 Macc 15:1-9; Jos. Antiq. xiii. 7. 1 § 223). Antiochus VII claimed the throne against the usurper Tryphon and quickly defeated him in Antioch in 138 b.c. In trying to restore the Seleucid power in the W, he asked Simon to surrender his principal fortresses (1 Macc 15:28-31) but Simon refused and defeated Antiochus VII’s officer, Cendebaeus (1 Macc 16:1-10; Jos. Antiq. xiii. 7, 3 § 225-227). After the death of Simon (135 b.c.), Antiochus VII in person attacked Judea and besieged Jerusalem. Because of the shortage of food Hyrcanus (see Hasmoneans) surrendered and made peace, which restored the Seleucid supremacy in the W (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 8. 2-3 § 236-248). In 130 b.c. with the assistance of Hyrcanus, Antiochus VII temporarily recovered Babylon from Parthia. In 129 b.c. Demetrius II came to Syria, having been released from prison by the Parthians (who were hard pressed) so that he might create a diversion in his brother’s attack on the Parthians. In 128 b.c. Antiochus was killed in battle against the Parthians, and Demetrius II became the sole king for the second time (129-125 b.c.) (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 8. 4 § 253; Appian The Syrian Wars 68). The internal strife seriously weakened the Seleucids for they never regained the provinces in the E.

8. Antiochus VIII (Grypus = hook-nosed) (140-96 b.c.), second son of Demetrius II and Cleopatra (daughter of Ptolemy Philometor and former wife of Alexander Balas—see Cleopatra). Antiochus VIII became ruler in 124 b.c. but in 116 b.c. was attacked by his half-brother/cousin Antiochus Cyzicenus and consequently in 113 b.c. Antiochus VIII retired to Aspendus in Pamphylia (Appian The Syrian Wars 68-69; Jos Antiq. xiii. 10. 1; 12. 1 § 269-273, 325). In 111 b.c. Antiochus VIII returned and gained the greater part of Syria from his half-brother/cousin, the latter retaining the greater part of Coele-Syria. The feud between the brothers was of great advantage to Rome in gaining a foothold in Syria and for the Jews toward complete independence under John Hyrcanus (see Hasmoneans). Antiochus VIII was assassinated in 96 b.c. by Heracleon, a king’s minister (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 13. 4 § 365). He was succeeded by his oldest son Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator (see Seleucus).

9. Antiochus IX (Cyzicenus, but Philopater on coins), reigned 113-95 b.c., second son of Antiochus VII and Cleopatra (daughter of Ptolemy Philometor and formerly married to Alexander Balas and Demetrius II), was reared in Cyzicus in Asia Minor, hence the surname (Appian The Syrian Wars 68). In 116 b.c. he defeated his half brother/cousin Antiochus VIII and became the sole ruler from 113-111 b.c. Upon the return of Antiochus VIII, Antiochus IX was able to retain only Coele-Syria while the former regained the greater part of Syria. Antiochus IX was captured, killed, and succeeded by his nephew Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 13. 4 § 366) (see Seleucus).

10. Antiochus X (Eusebes = pious), reigned 94-83 b.c., son of Antiochus IX Cyzicenus. When Seleucus VI Epiphanes Nicator, son of Antiochus VIII Grypus, took over the throne in 95 b.c., he was challenged by Antiochus XI. Subsequently the other four sons of Antiochus VIII Grypus, viz., Antiochus IX, Philip, Demetrius III, and Antiochus XII all attempted to wrest the throne from Antiochus X. After conquering Mesopotamia, Tigranes, king of Armenia, gained control over Syria in 83 b.c. and ruled over it by means of a viceroy until his own defeat by the Romans in 69 b.c. (Jos. Antiq. xiii. 13. 4 § 366-371; Appian The Syrian Wars 48). This internal strife weakened the Seleucid dynasty which was beneficial to the Romans and made it possible for Alexander Janneus (see Hasmoneans) to conquer almost all of the land of Israel. Antiochus X’s end in 83 b.c. is variously reported (Appian The Syrian Wars 49, 69; Jos. Antiq. xiii. 13. 4 § 371).

11. Antiochus XIII (Asiaticus), reigned 69-65 b.c., son of Antiochus X and Selene (daughter of Ptolemy Physcon who had been married successively to Ptolemy Soter, Antiochus VIII, Antiochus IX, and Antiochus X—Strabo xvi. 2. 3; Appian The Syrian Wars 69). When Lucullus of Rome defeated Tigranes of Armenia in 69 b.c., he assigned Syria to Antiochus XIII. In 65 b.c. Philip, grandson of Antiochus VIII, sought to claim the throne but was unsuccessful. Antiochus XIII appealed to Rome for help but Pompey came to Syria and made it a Rom. province in 63 b.c. which marked the end of the Seleucid dynasty (cf. Appian The Syrian Wars 49, 70; Plutarch Pompey 39; Strabo xl. 1a).

12. The father of Numenius (see Numenius) mentioned in 1 Maccabees 12:16; 14:22; Jos Antiq. xiii. 5. 8 § 169; xiv. 8. 5 § 146.

13. Antiochus (Epiphanes), son of Antiochus IV of Commagene, was engaged to marry Drusilla, youngest daughter of Agrippa I (see [http://biblegateway/wiki/Drusilla DRUSILLA AND AGRIPPA]); but the marriage was never consummated because, although he had promised Agrippa to embrace Judaism, he later changed his mind and refused to become a convert (cf. Jos. Antiq. xix. 9. 1 § 355; xx. 7. 1 § 139).

Bibliography E. Schürer, HJP, I, i, 172-185; E. R. Bevan, The House of Seleucus, 2 vols. (1902), passim; W. W. Tarn, “Tne Struggle of Egypt against Syria and Macedonia,” CAH, VII (1928), 699-731; E. R. Bevan, “Syria and the Jews,” CAH, VIII (1930), 495-533; S. Tedesche and S. Zeitlin, The First Book of Maccabees, Eng. tr., introd., and comm. (1950), passim; M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Hellenistic World, 3 vols., 2nd ed. (1953), passim; J. C. Dancy, A Commentary on I Maccabees (1954), passim; R. A. Parker and W. H. Dubberstein, Babylonian Chronology 626 B.C.-A.D. 75, 2nd ed. (1956), 37-44; G. Downey, A History of Antioch in Syria (1961), 87-142; passim; S. K. Eddy, The King Is Dead (1961), passim; S. Zeitlin, The Rise and Fall of the Judaean State, I (1962), passim; D. S. Russell, The Jews from Alexander to Herod. Vol. V of The New Clarendon Bible (1967), passim; B. Reicke, The New Testament Era (1968), 48-73.