ARABIA (עְרָ֑ב, in Isa 21:13; ̓Αραβία, G728, meaning desert). A large peninsula of SW Asia.

A. Biblical references.

1. In the OT. Arabia in Isaiah 21:13 shows the root meaning of the name, the “desert,” or “steppe,” of the NW part of the peninsula. In Jeremiah 25:24 the name refers to the N portion, but in 2 Chronicles 9:14 and Ezekiel 27:21 it includes the S also. In the last three references עֲרַב׃֙ is really the name of the people, the Arabs, according to the Heb. idiom of naming a country by its people. In 1 Kings 10:15 and Ezekiel 30:5 most modern trs. follow ancient VSS in reading ’ărāb, “Arabs” or “Arabia,” rather than the MT ’ereb, “mingled people.” These two references seem to include both S and N. NW Arabia is also called אֶ֥רֶץ קֶֽדֶם (’eres qedem), “east country” (Gen 25:6), that is, the country E of Pal.

2. In the Apocrypha. Arabia in Judith 2:25 seems from the context to be near Damascus. In 1 Maccabees 11:16 Arabia refers to the kingdom of the Nabateans, E and S of Pal. “The dragons of Arabia” (2 Esd 15:29) is prob. a fig. expression for the Arabians who fought under Odenathus of Palmyra against the Sassanid Persians in the 3rd cent. a.d.

3. In the NT. Arabia in Galatians 1:17 is taken by most to refer to the Nabatean kingdom S of Damascus. Some think that Mount Sinai is intended, but this would prob. have been stated more specifically. Paul follows the geography of his time by including Mount Sinai in Arabia (Gal 4:25). The kingdom of Sheba in S Arabia is called “the South” in Matthew 12:42 and Luke 11:31.

B. Location and size. The peninsula of Arabia is bounded on the W by the Red Sea, on the S by the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean, on the E by the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf, and on the N by the Syrian Desert. Since it is surrounded on three sides by water, the Arabs call it Jazīrat al-’Arab, “the island of the Arabs.”

Arabia is the largest peninsula in the world. It covers about one million square m., about one third the area of continental United States. The peninsula is roughly rectangular. The length of the W coast is about 1,450 m., and the S coast is about 1,250 m. long.

C. Divisions of Arabia.

1. Divisions of classical geographers. Greek and Lat. geographers, following Ptolemy of Alexandria (2nd cent. a.d.), divided Arabia into three parts: (a) Arabia Petrea, named after the main city, Petra, and including E Trans-Jordan, Moab, Edom, and Sinai; (b) Arabia Deserta, including the Syrian Desert; and (c) Arabia Felix, “Fortunate Arabia,” the SW portion.

2. Divisions of Arab geographers. Yaqut (13th cent. a.d.) in his geographical dictionary called Mu’jam al-buldān gives five divisions: Tihamah (the plain along the W coast), al-Hijaz (the mountains E of Tihamah), Najd (the central plateau), al-’Arud also called al-Hasa (the plain along the E shore), and Yemen (in the SW).

3. Modern political divisions. The following states now occupy the Arabian peninsula: Saudi Arabia (most of the peninsula, esp. the N, W, and central portions); Yemen (in the SW corner); South Yemen, Muscat, and Oman (in the S); Qatar, Kuwait, and other sheikdoms (on the E). Some areas in the NW included in ancient Arabia are now parts of Syria, Jordan, and Israel.

D. Physical features.

1. Geology. The rocks of Arabia are of three main types and periods: the igneous and metamorphic rocks of the mountains of the W; the later sedimentary rocks (limestone, sandstone, shale) in the NE; and the comparatively recent lava beds in the NW. Under the sedimentary rocks of the NE is about one-third of the world’s known supply of petroleum. This was first extracted in 1932 on the island of Bahrain and soon thereafter on the NE shore of the mainland.

2. Geography. Much of the coastline on the W and E is sandy, and there are no river mouths. Therefore, there are few good natural harbors, except for Aden and Muscat in the S. Sephar (Gen 10:30) is thought by some to be a harbor on the S coast. The most striking promontories are the Peninsula of Sinai (the scene of the Israelites’ wandering), Bab al-Mandab in the SW corner, Ras al-Hadd at the SE corner, Ras Musandam in Oman, and Qatar projecting into the Persian Gulf. The rim of mountains on the W and S coasts intercepts rainclouds, leaving the interior dry. The traditional Mount Sinai is 7,500 ft. high; mountains in Midian rise to 9,000 ft.; the highest mountain in Yemen is 12,336 ft.; and al-Jabal al-Akhdar in Oman reaches 9,900 ft. above sea level. Some mountains in the NW are extinct volcanoes, whose last eruption took place in medieval times. Some scholars interpret the smoke, fire, and earthquake of Exodus 19:18 as signs of an eruption, and therefore they wish to locate Mount Sinai in the volcanic area E of the Gulf of Aqabah. But the traditional Mount Sinai W of the Gulf of Aqabah is not a volcano. Some suggest that חֲרֵרִימ׃֙ “parched places” in Jeremiah 17:6 may refer to lava beds, which are called ḥarrah in Arab. The mountains of the W coast are cut by many valleys, along which the caravans used to travel. Some of these valleys drain E into deserts, and the evaporation of freshets has left “salt land” (Job 39:6; Ps 107:34; Jer 17:6) in many parts of NW Arabia. Job 6:18 refers to the deserts of Arabia as “the waste.” The deserts include the stony Syrian Desert in the N, the semi-arid central plateau called Najd, and sandy deserts. The Arabs call the sandy desert in the N al-Nufud, and that in the S al-Rab’ al-Khali, “the Empty Quarter,” which covers about 230,000 sq. m., the largest sand area in the world. Oases with occasional springs in the desert made possible the caravan trade. Some oases mentioned in the Bible are: Dedan, Dumah, and Tema.

3. Meteorology. Arabia is dry and hot. Only in the SW, the S near the coast, and the SE is there enough rainfall for regular agriculture. Places in al-Rab’al-Khali may go rainless for as long as ten years. The average temperature on the W coast is about 90^o F., but nights are chilly on the high central plateau. Violent winds (Job 1:19) or whirlwinds (Job 27:20), carrying dust (Isa 17:13), are a terror to Arabians. Job 27:21 indicates that such winds often come from the E, that is, from Arabia.

4. Water. Since rain is rare and irregular, there are no large lakes, except for Umm al-Jibal, about three-quarters of a m. long in central Arabia, and there is only one short river which always has water, Wadi Hajar in the S. Following occasional cloudbursts, torrents may sweep down the valleys; but these streams soon disappear, and those who seek water in the valleys are usually disappointed, like the Arab merchants of Job 6:13-20. Water from these sudden rains remains in the subsoil of some valleys, and Arab travelers dig to it with sticks, just as the Israelites did as they passed through Moab (Num 21:16, 17). Also the subterranean water sometimes comes to the surface in oases. In ancient times the scant rainfall was more efficiently preserved than at present by dams, reservoirs, canals, and terraces, most of which have now fallen into disrepair.

5. Mineral products mentioned in the Bible. Gold is often mentioned as a product of Arabia (1 Kings 10:2, 10, 15, 22; 2 Chron 9:1, 9, 14, 21). The following places in Arabia are named as sources of gold: Ophir (1 Kings 9:28; 10:11; 22:48; 1 Chron 29:4; 2 Chron 8:18; 9:10; Job 22:24; 28:16; Ps 45:9; Isa 13:12); Havilah (Gen 2:11, 12); Sheba (Ps 72:15; Isa 60:6; Ezek 27:22); Raamah (Ezek 27:22); and Parvaim (2 Chron 3:6). Silver is also said to come from Arabia (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chron 9:14, 21). The precious stones from Arabia (Ezek 27:22) included onyx from Havilah (Gen 2:12). According to L Aristeas 119, there were copper and iron mines in Arabia, prob. in Edom. Coral is mentioned (Job 28:18; Lam 4:7), and that imported through Edom to Tyre (Ezek 27:16) prob. came from the coral reefs off the W shore of Arabia. The Great Pearl Banks off the NE shore of Arabia were the most important ancient source of pearls (Job 28:18; Matt 7:6; 13:45; 1 Tim 2:9; Rev 17:4; 18:12, 16; 21:21).

E. Plants of Arabia mentioned in the Bible. Frankincense and other perfumes were the most valued products of Arabia in ancient times. These aromatic gums were carried by Arab traders (Gen 37:25) from such places in Arabia as Havilah (2:11) and Sheba (1 Kings 10:1, 2, 10; 2 Chron 9:1, 9; Isa 60:6). The most important Arabian fruit tree is the date palm, whose fruit is a staple of Arabian diet and whose leaves, branches, fiber, and wood are also useful. The Israelites, as they wandered in the wilderness of Sinai, found seventy date palms at the oasis of Elim (Exod 15:27). Some have suggested that the manna (ch. 16) was the juice of the common Arabian tree, the tamarisk, extracted and dropped by insects, but the Biblical references imply a much larger quantity of manna than the usual droppings from the tamarisks. The shittim wood used in building the Tabernacle and its furniture (Exod 25:5, 10, 13, 23; 26:15, 26, 32; 27:1, 6; 30:1, 5) was from the acacia tree, which is common in Sinai. Mallow, broom, and nettles (Job 30:4, 7) are typical desert plants of Arabia. “Thickets” (Isa 21:13) of bushes are found at oases. Ezekiel 27:19, according to the emended text followed by RSV, makes wine a product of Uzal, which is prob. in Arabia, but ancient Arabia imported rather than exported wine. Almug wood (1 Kings 10:11, 12) and ebony (Ezek 27:15) are said to come from Arabia, but these products of India and Africa were simply passed on by Arabian merchants.

F. Animals of Arabia mentioned in the Bible.

1. Domestic animals. The camel is certainly the most important animal to the Arabians, who ride it, load it with goods to be transported, drink its milk, eat its meat, make leather from its skin, and weave its hair into cloth. In the Bible the camel is often associated with Arabs and with places in Arabia: the Ishmaelites (Gen 37:25; 1 Chron 27:30); the Midianites (Judg 6:5; 7:12; 8:22, 26); the Amalekites (1 Sam 15:3; 30:17); the Queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:2; 2 Chron 9:1); the Hagrites (1 Chron 5:21); Kedar (Jer 49:29); and Hazor in the desert (Jer 49:32). Arab nomadic shepherds, and particularly the princes of Kedar, sold sheep and goats to Tyre (Ezek 27:21). Cattle were owned by the Midianites (Num 31:33, 38), but as these vv. show, they were less common among the Arabs than sheep and goats. Asses are used by the Arabs for riding and for carrying smaller burdens, and they were among the possessions of the Midianites (Num 31:28, 30, 34, 39) and the Hagrites (1 Chron 5:21). The Arabian horse is famous for its speed, and it is described in Job 39:19-25, much as in Arabian poetry. Among Solomon’s imports from Ophir were pet monkeys (1 Kings 10:22), which may have been brought from India or Africa.

2. Wild Animals. The section in Job 38:39-39:12 describes the following wild animals of NW Arabia: the lion (no longer found in Arabia), the mountain goat, the wild ass, and the wild ox (now extinct). The Bible also refers to the following desert animals which are found in Arabia: the jackal and the hyena (Isa 34:13, 14, in Edom); the wolf (connected with Arabia by the LXX of Hab 1:8 and Zeph 3:3); the gazelle (Isa 13:14); poisonous serpents (Num 21:6); and the flying serpent (Isa 14:29; 30:6). This last is also located in Arabia by Herodotus (II 75) and may be the Arabian aym, a viper which springs into the air. The elephant is not native to Arabia, and so the ivory from Ophir (1 Kings 10:22; 2 Chron 9:21) and from Dedan (Ezek 27:15 MT, RSV Rhodes) came originally from Africa or India and was transferred by Arabian traders.

3. Birds. Birds of Arabia mentioned in Job 38 and 39 include: the raven, the ostrich (last seen in Arabia in the wild state in 1941), the hawk, and the eagle. Other birds are connected with Arabia in the Bible as follows: migratory quail (which the Israelites ate in Sinai, Exod 16:13; Num 11:31), the owl, and the kite (both located in Edom, Isa 34:15). The “peacocks” brought by Solomon from Ophir (1 Kings 10:22) may have come originally from India, but the word may mean “baboons” (RSVmg.), which are found in the mountains of SW Arabia.

4. Insects. NW Arabia is often the source of locusts which attack countries to the W, such as Pal. (Joel 1; 2). Note that locusts in the time of Moses were carried into Egypt by an E wind, perhaps from Sinai (Exod 10:13).

5. Marine animals. Onycha used in making the holy incense (Exod 30:34) was derived from a shellfish of the Red Sea. The leather used as one of the coverings of the Tabernacle (26:14, RSV “goatskins”) and to make shoes (Ezek 16:10, RSV “leather”) is thought by some to have come from the dolphin or the dugong of the Red Sea. On coral and pearl oysters see D.5 above.

G. Caravan routes. The main caravan route for the transport of Arabian incense and products of Africa and India went through the mountains of W Arabia. Beginning in Sheba, or Yemen (1 Kings 10:1-13), the caravans went N from oasis to oasis, past Mecca, Medina, al-’Ula (called Dedan in the Bible), Mada’in Salih, and Tabuk to Ma’an near Petra. From there some caravans turned N to Damascus, and others went W to Gaza or Egypt. Other routes branched E to Iraq, like the one going from Mada’in Salih and passing through Tayma’ (called Tema in the Bible). From al-Jawf (called Dumah in the Bible) a caravan route went NW via Wadi Sirhan to Trans-Jordan.

H. Places in Arabia mentioned in the Bible. The Bible refers to many places in the ancient Arabia Petrea (see C.1), which included Sinai, Edom, Moab, and E Trans-Jordan. The following Biblical places can be located with more or less probability in the peninsula of Arabia: Buz, Dedan, Dumah, Ephah, Havilah, Hazarmaveth, Hazor (Jer 49:28), Massa, Mesha (Gen 10:30), Midian, Ophir, Parvaim, Raamah, Sabtah, Seba, Sheba, Sephar, Tema, Uz, and Uzal.

Bibliography Yaqut, Mu’jam al-buldān, ed., F. Wüstenfeld (1866-1873); al-Hamdani, Sifat jazīrat al-’arab, ed. D. H. Müller (1891); D. H. Müller, “Arabia,” in Pauly’s Realencyclopädie der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft, N.B., vol. III (1895), cols. 244-259; F. M. Abel, Géographie de la Palestine, I (1933), 288-298; J. A. Montgomery, Arabia and the Bible (1934); al-Hamdani, al-Iklīl, VIII, “The Antiquities of South Arabia,” tr. N. A. Faris (1938); R. H. Kiernan, The Unveiling of Arabia (1939); R. H. Sanger, The Arabian Peninsula (1954); P. K. Hitti, History of the Arabs, 10th ed. (1970); J. Simons, The Geographical and Topographical Texts of the Old Testament (1959), sections 18, 174, 1048, 1172, 1337, 1428; R. Lebkicher, G. Rentz, M. Steineke, The Arabia of Ibn Saud (1960); G. Rentz, “Djazīrat al “Arab,” The Encyclopedia of Islam, new ed. Vol. I (1960), 533-556; Butrus Abd al-Malik, J. A. Thompson, “Arabia” in The Biblical World, ed. C. F. Pfeiffer (1966).