DAMASCUS də măs’ kəs (Gr. Δαμασκός, G1242; Heb. דַּמֶּ֨שֶׂק׃֙, and perhaps מֶ֣שֶׁק; Gen 15:2) (1) the well-known city NE of Mt. Hermon, (2) the general geographic region, and (3) at times, the state of which the city was the capital.
A. Locale. Damascus is located in a plain of about 2200 ft. elevation surrounded on three sides by mountains: Mt. Hermon and the Anti-Lebanon range on the W, a ridge jutting from the range on the N, and Jebel Aswad (Mt. Aswad) which separates it from the fertile Hauran (Biblical Bashan) on the S. Toward the E marshy lakes and low hills separate the region from the desert. Rainfall is a sparse ten inches per year so that agriculture must depend upon irrigation waters from the streams flowing off the Anti-Lebanon (El-Barada, The Cool, Biblical Abana) and from Mt. Hermon (El-Awaj, The Crooked, Biblical Pharpar). By careful usage these transform the plain into a green garden surrounded by barren, brown hills and desert sands. Agricultural products include olives, various fruits, almonds, walnuts, pistachios, grains, tobacco, cotton, flax, and hemp.
B. History
Prior to 1200 B.C. Earliest history of Damascus is known only from occasional references in documents of surrounding peoples and by inferences from the general state of affairs. The general region (called Abina, Apina, Aba, Abu, Api, Upe, etc.) is referred to in the Egyp. Execration texts (18th and 19th centuries b.c.) and in the Mari Letters (c. 18th cent. b.c.). Biblical “Mesheq” may be a name for Damascus from the time of Abraham (Gen 15:2: Heb. text). The name “Damascus” first appears among the conquests of Thutmoses III (1484-1450 b.c.). It remained a part of the Egyp. empire until Akhenaton (c. 1372-1354 b.c.). With the collapse of Egyp. power under Akhenaton, the Hittites penetrated as far S as Damascus, but Damascus does not seem to have been incorporated into the Hitt. empire as were regions further N. Seti I (1312-1298 b.c.) returned Damascus to the Egyp. sphere of influence, but in the latter part of the reign of Ramses II (1301-1225 b.c.) Egyp. power in Asia again faltered.
2. From 1200 B.C. to the Assyrian Conquest (732 B.C.). The extensive migrations of people of the late 13th cent. b.c. jolted Egypt and destroyed the Hitt. empire. They left the Hebrews, the Aramaeans, the Philistines, and numerous other peoples settled in new homelands. They set the stage for the Biblical conflicts between the Hebrews and the Aramaeans, esp. those of Damascus. The Heb. tribes lay directly across the trade routes extending SW from Damascus, thus assuring enmity between the two. Likewise Damascus was a threat to Assyrian trade routes to the Mediterranean.
Saul fought against Aramaean kingdoms such as Zobah (1 Sam 14:47). David incorporated a number of Aramaean kingdoms, including Damascus, into his empire (2 Sam 8:5, 6). But, shortly afterward, Damascus regained her independence under Rezon and took the lead in Syrian resistance to Heb. domination (1 Kings 11:23-25; c. 940 b.c.). The death of Solomon and the subsequent division of the Heb. kingdom ended all Heb. pretensions of an empire in Syria. Under Rezon, Hezion and Tabrimmon (the latter two known from 1 Kings 15:18 and the Ben-hadad Stele; some identify Rezon and Hezion), Damascus became the leader of the Aramaean states of Syria.
History of Damascus now turns on three kings, Ben-hadad I (i.e. Hadad-ezer or Adadidri; 883-843 b.c.), Hazael (843-c. 801 b.c.), and Ben-hadad II. Their policies were (1) suppression of the Hebrews in order to keep the southeastern trade routes open, and (2) maintenance of an anti-Assyrian coalition of Syrian states—including the Hebrews whenever possible.
Under Ben-hadad I, Damascus dominated Syria and was easily able to intervene in Heb. affairs (cf. 1 Kings 15:16-22; c. 879). The dynasty of Omri offered more effective resistance; Ahab defeated Ben-hadad I twice in battle (c. 855 and 854; 1 Kings 20:1-21, 23-34). However, the following year, Ahab and Ben-hadad were allies against Assyria at the Battle of Qarqar (853 b.c.). Ben-hadad remained the soul of resistance to Assyria through three more hard-fought campaigns (849, 848, 845) and seems to have been generally successful in checking Assyrian expansion. He also saw his great enemy, Ahab, die in the battle of Ramoth-gilead (c. 851; 22:34-36). Ben-hadad was killed by the usurper, Hazael.
The role of the prophet Elisha in Hazael’s rise to power (2 Kings 8:10-15) is significant. This incident also gives a graphic view of Heb. fear of Hazael (v. 12). Hazael decisively defeated the Hebrews; he suppressed Jehu and reduced Jehoahaz to vassalage (13:1-9). Against the Assyrians, he was less successful. Shalmaneser III boasted of slaying some 16,000 of Hazael’s men, besieging Damascus, despoiling gardens outside the wall, and plundering the region as far S as the Hauran.
Ben-hadad II was defeated both by the Hebrews and the Assyrians. Adad-Nirari III of Assyria boasts of besieging Damascus and receiving tribute. Then a revitalized Israel, under Joash and Jeroboam II, not only gained independence but even succeeded in making Damascus the vassal state (14:28).
The end for Damascus came when Ahaz of Judah called for Assyrian help against Israel under Pekah and Damascus under Rezon (Biblical Rezin; 16:5-9). Tiglath-pileser III (i.e. Pul; 745-727 b.c.), in response, defeated Israel annexing part of her territory and then sacked Damascus putting an end to her history as an independent Aramaean state.
3. Under Foreign Rule (732 B.C.-A.D. 636). Damascus’ economic importance endured through Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian rule until Antioch became the commercial leader of Syria in the Hel. Age. Warfare between the Ptolemies of Egypt and the Seleucids left Damascus under Seleucid control. However, after Rom. intervention Damascus was at various times controlled by the Nabateans (c. 85 b.c. and the time of Paul), by Herod, and even by Cleopatra. Other times Damascus was a “free” member of the Decapolis, but finally became a part of the Rom. empire under Nero after being temporarily controlled by Augustus and Tiberius. With the division of the Rom. empire, Damascus became one of the major frontier cities of the Byzantine empire.
4. Arab rule (A.D. 636-present). Arab rule began with the Battle of Yarmuk in 636. Since then Damascus has generally retained her economic importance and at times has added an important political and cultural role. Her period as capital of the Umayyad Empire (639-744) and the 14th cent. under the control of the Egyp. Mamelukes was brilliant. Her most serious disaster was the sacking at the hands of Timur’s Mongols in 1401. In modern times, Damascus has regained her role as leading city and capital of Syria though her former economic importance is shared with Aleppo.
C. Description and remains. Modern Damascus combines clean, wide thoroughfares with the narrow, crowded lanes of the older quarters of the city. Traditional handicraft industries can be seen within walking distance of the site of the annual Damascus trade fair.
Historic remains and sacred sites abound in the region. Moslem pilgrims can visit Adam’s Cave at Jebel Qasiyun, the Cave of Blood where Abel was murdered, the Cavern of Gabriel, and Moses’ Tomb. The Umayyad Mosque built on the site of the basilica of St. John the Baptist—which in turn occupied the site of a classical temple of Jupiter—still shows some elements of the old pagan temple. Moslem tradition asserts that the Prophet Jesus (i.e. Jesus of Nazareth) will return to the Minaret of Jesus of this mosque to fight the Anti-Christ.
For the Christian there is the street called Straight, the place in the wall—including the very window—from which Paul was lowered in a basket, the site of Paul’s vision, and the house of Ananias. All of these are of dubious authenticity.
For the historian there are the Citadel chiefly from the 13th cent. but built on the site of a Rom. fortress, portions of the city wall, and the National Museum. For the student of Biblical backgrounds, the Museum features the Mari Room with an outstanding collection of statues and objects, and the Ras Shamra Room containing the major finds from Ugarit. Also of interest is the reconstruction of the Dura Europa synagogue and the objects from Palmyra (Tadmor). See Aram, Aramaeans.
Bibliography “Damascus,” HDB (1900); BASOR, 87 (1947), 23-29; M. F. Unger, Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus (1957); “Damascus,” Encyclopedia of Islam (1965); M. F. Unger, “Damascus,” The Biblical World (1966); C. Thubron, Mirror to Damascus (1967).