DIVINATION (קָסַם, H7876, practice divination; נָחַשׁ, H5727, observe, divine, enchant; עָנַנ֒, H6725, observe times [KJV], practice soothsaying. Other relevant words include: אﯴב֒, H199, medium, necromancer, familiar spirit [KJV]; יִדְּעֹנִי, H3362, wizard, כָּשַׁף, H4175, practice witchcraft, sorcery).

Divination is the practice of consulting beings (divine, human, or departed) or things (by observing objects or actions) in the attempt to gain information about the future and such other matters as are removed from normal knowledge.

1. Classification of types. The above definition suggests the need for distinguishing between what might be termed personal or intuitive, and impersonal methods. The term “divination” indicates that a divine Being provides the information. Seers, the Pythia who uttered the oracle at Delphi, and mediums who consult the dead, all are said to receive messages from a personal source or in a subjective way. Other methods, sometimes called “artificial” or “automatic,” are gathered from impersonal things like the flight of birds, a sneeze, or the casting of lots.

Divination is related to magic, but is distinct from it mainly in that the latter attempts to produce certain effects while the former seeks knowledge. Nevertheless practitioners of one also might engage in the other. Note the various practices and practitioners associated in Deuteronomy 18:10 (cf., 2 Chron 33:6), which were a threat to Israel.

2. Methods of divination

a. Chresmology. Prognostication by seers and through oracles may be considered a form of divination to the extent that information is sought out. The OT indicates that prophets were formerly called seers, and were consulted to ascertain God’s will (1 Sam 9:9). However, seers, like prophets, could be false, and Micah 3:7 links them with diviners, to whom God refuses an answer. Oracles were messages from a deity. The word also signified the place or person who transmitted them.

b. Oneiromancy. Dreams were thought to convey divine messages. These frequently needed interpretation (as was given by Joseph and Daniel). An ancient dream analyst, Artemidorus, who itinerated from city to city plying his trade, has left a vivid account of his practice. Sometimes one would sleep in a temple (incubation) hoping for a dream from the resident deity. The god of healing, Asclepius, was thought esp. communicative in this regard. Aelius Aristides, a hypochondriac orator, has related in his Sacred Discourses how Asclepius instructed him regarding treatment.

c. Astrology was an ancient means which gained in popularity, esp. in the Hel. period. On the assumption that the planets and stars were in harmony with earth and mankind, the character and fate of an individual, or even a whole nation, were determined through a horoscope based on the signs of the Zodiac (see Astrology).

d. Necromancy was consultation with the dead. This was done through a medium, who received messages through a “familiar spirit.” This method received severe condemnation in the Bible (Lev 19:31; 20:6, 27; Isa 8:19f., where the KJV has the quaint rendering, “wizards that peep, and that mutter,” in addition to Deut 18:10; 2 Chron 33:6). King Saul, who had banished mediums and wizards, nevertheless in desperation consulted the medium at Endor, an act for which he was judged by God (1 Sam 28:9-19; 1 Chron 10:13f.).

e. Haruspicy,study of the entrails of animals and esp. hepatoscopy, study of livers, provided a means of impersonal divination used widely from the Babylonians to the Romans. Since the liver was at one time considered the seat of life and since sacrificial animals were used, hepatoscopy was a religious practice.

f. Augury was the analysis of the movements of animals, and esp. of birds.

g. Omens and portents were of many kinds, including e. and f. above. A portent was an omen of great or supernatural character, such as earthquakes or heavenly phenomena. Typical omens were involuntary human actions, as a cough or hiccup, the actions of animals, or other impersonal occurrences. (Divination by human signs is called cledonomancy.) Since one who had decided on a course of action would be more affected by a contrary omen, they, and esp. portents, frequently took on a negative character.

h. Mechanical means. These would include hydromancy, divination by water (see below on Joseph and the cup), pyromancy, the observation of fire, and cleromancy. This last includes the use of plates or rods drawn at random (sortilege), the interpretation of the position of objects such as rods or arrows (rhabdomancy), and, in general, any casting of lots, or of dice, drawing straws, etc.

It will be observed that, in general, the above methods range from the personal (seer and oracle) to the completely impersonal (lots). Yet, even omens were considered to convey the mind of God (cf. Prov 16:33; Acts 1:26).

3. History. Divination and magic are known from early times among many cultures. The OT reflects the situation in contemporary cultures: Moabite (Num 23:23), Philistine (1 Sam 6:2), and Babylonian (Isa 44:25). Egyptian magicians sought to duplicate the acts of Moses and Aaron (Exod 7:8-13, 22; 8:7, 18). Apparently Joseph learned divination performed by observing water in a cup (Gen 44:1-5, 15), although the Heb. also may be understood in a way which attributes wisdom to Joseph concerning (rather than by means of) the cup in question. The ability to interpret dreams is attributed to Joseph (Gen 37:5-11; 40:5-19), but this is understood to be a revelation from God (40:8), not a duplication of pagan techniques.

Divination in ancient Greece was originally not as much a religious function as in some other cultures. The seer was a familiar figure. Dreams and omens were of great importance throughout Gr. history. The latter were esp. sought with regard to a tentative course of action. Astrology, introduced from Babylonia, was accepted by many because of its claim to scientific accuracy. It made great gains after the unification of the world in the Hel. period and the decadence of formal religion and philosophy, which made its claim to cosmic unity and its offer of personal guidance attractive.

Oracles were offered not only at the famous shrine of Apollo at Delphi, but at that of Zeus at Dodona (the oldest shrine), and others. At Delphi the Pythia, the prophetess, sat on a tripod over a steaming fissure and communicated the oracle, which usually had to be interpreted by the “prophets” there. The ambiguity of many of these oracular interpretations is well known.

It will be noted from the above that the Greeks practiced both personal and impersonal divination. Often the personal involved “possession” by a deity, or “enthusiasm.” This type did not find ready acceptance at Rome. Cleromancy, esp. sortilege, haruspicy, and various omens were popular. Augury was used to determine times for official functions that were “auspicious” (from auspicium, divination by the flight of birds). Such practices, though widely used, were, like astrology, spurned by some Romans. Nevertheless, they had their influence, as did the Sibylline Oracles, which had full acceptance.

4. Divination in the Bible. First it must be noted that there are several apparent occurrences of divination in both the OT and the NT. The case of Joseph has been mentioned. Daniel’s interpretation of dreams is attributed to the revelatory power of the true God (Dan 2:17-23). The word used to describe Laban’s claim to superior knowledge is a cognate of נָחַשׁ, H5727, otherwise used to describe enchantment or divination (Gen 30:27). The same word is used in the account of Balaam, who found that enchantment and divination were powerless against Israel (Num 23:23; 24:1). The Syrian Ben-hadad’s servants watched for an omen (1 Kings 20:33 RSV). Numbers 5:11-31 provides for a procedure, in the case of a woman suspected of adultery, which could be considered either divination or, perhaps more precisely a means of judgment. Gideon’s use of the fleece (Judg 6:36-40) is prob. to be classed with God’s provisions of signs to confirm his revealed will, rather than as a means of divination. (Shortly afterward, Gideon also heard of someone’s dream which indicated his forthcoming victory [7:13-15].) The incident in 1 Samuel 14:7-12 may be of the same nature. Ezekiel 21:18-23 provides a description of the devices used by the king of Babylon, arrows, teraphim (images), and liver. The use of arrows by Jonathan (1 Sam 20:20-22) and by Joash (2 Kings 13:15-19) was not for divination as some have maintained.

It is not known how the Urim and Thummim were used. It is suggested that they were two stones or other objects, possibly inscribed on opposite sides with the words Urim and Thummim. Exodus 28:30 indicates that these were kept in the breastpiece attached to the ephod worn by the high priest. Moses gave directions for its use (Num 27:21), and David employed it, asking questions which required a positive or negative answer. These answers are preceded by the words, “And the Lord said...” (1 Sam 23:9-12). There is no further mention of this device until postexilic times (Ezra 2:63; Neh 7:65).

In the NT, the casting of lots in Acts 1:26 is related without further comment. God indicated His will to Paul in an unspecified way through a prophet (16:6-10; 21:10ff.). Paul exorcised a “spirit of divination” who had possessed a girl (16:16ff.). Luke describes Simon the magician, whose figure reappears in early Christian lit. as the antagonist Simon Magus (Acts 8:9-13). In Acts 13:6ff. we are introduced to Elymas who is also a magos.

This word (μάγος, G3407) was used to describe the Pers. wise men and astrologers (Matt 2:1), clever people and magicians in general, or any scoundrel one might suspect or accuse of evil practices. Magos and goēs (γοής, “sorcerer”) were words frequently employed in apostolic and postapostolic times as invectives against practitioners who were not of one’s own religious persuasion. They are found in Josephus, the Church Fathers, and other lit. The Jewish Talmud contains accusations implying that Jesus had employed sorcery.

From time to time in Jewish history cabalistic practices have been followed, but, except for certain periods, divination has been rare in Judaism and likewise in Christianity. The Church has on occasion risen to oppose allegedly magical practices, and the Salem witch hunts are esp. notorious. In the latter part of the 20th cent. occult practices again have flourished, including divination and witchcraft, requiring a fresh application of Biblical teaching.

It will be seen from the passages referred to that the Scriptures forbid divination and magic. The major passages include Leviticus 19:26, 31; 20:6; Deuteronomy 18:9-14; Isaiah 8:16-20; 44:24ff.; Jeremiah 14:13-16; 27:8-11; Ezekiel 13:6-9, 23. It will be noted that these references, given here in their full contexts, contain not only warnings against divination, but also affirmations that God speaks through His own true prophets.

Bibliography Cicero, On Divination (45 b.c.); A. Bouché-Leclercq, Histoire de la divination dans l’antiquité (1872-82); M. Summers, The History of Witchraft and Demonology (1926); M. Summers, The Geography of Witchcraft (1927); H. J. Rose, “Divination (Introductory and Primitive),” 3rd “Divination (Greek),” HERE (1928), 775-780; 796-799; H. S. Lea, Materials Toward a History of Witchcraft (1939); K. Seligmann, The History of Magic (1948); M. P. Nilsson, Geschichte der griechischen Religion, I, 2nd ed. (1955), II (1950); R. La Roche, La Divination (1957); R. H. Robbins, The Encyclopedia of Witchcraft and Demonology (1959); K. A. Kitchen, “Magic and Sorcery,” NBD (1962); J. P. Hyatt, “Magic, Divination, and Sorcery,” HDB rev. (1963); R. Alleau, Histoire des Sciences Occultes (1965); R. Flaceliere, Greek Oracles, tr. D. Garman (1965).