DRESS. Ever since the creation man has been interested in articles of clothing, and thus it is not surprising that the Bible gives considerable information as to articles worn by men and women. Sometimes the Heb. and Gr. terms are clear as to the exact nature of the items, and at other times there exists doubt as to the specific shape, size, or character of the articles.

A. Descriptions in which terms for several articles of dress occur together. Several passages in the OT and NT give descriptions of dress to be worn (including ornaments) in which a number of Heb. and Gr. terms for articles of apparel are to be found together. These and other terms are found scattered throughout the Scriptures.

Matthew 5:40 and Luke 6:29 are instructive as to the ancient practice of wearing outer and inner garments, by using the terms χιτών, G5945, “tunic,” for the “inner garment” and ἱμάτιον, G2668, for the “outer.” In Matthew 5:40 the χιτών, G5945, RSV “coat” or “inner garment” occurs first, because in this legal case described, the defendant, besides the more easily accessible himation, “cloak,” was to relinquish the indispensable χιτών, G5945, the “inner” garment. However, in Luke 6:29 the himation is listed first, because in a robbery situation the “outer garment,” ἱμάτιον, G2668, would logically be stolen first, and then, the inner chitōn.

Fully dressed men are described in Daniel 3:21 (in an Aram. section of the book) as being attired in “mantles” (סַרְבָּל, H10517, prob. or possibly “trousers,” or, even “shoes”), “tunics” (פַּטִּישׁ, H10582, meaning uncertain, possibly “tunic” or “leggins”), “their hats” (כַּרְבְּלָה, H10368, prob. “helmet” or “cap”; cf. Akkad. karballatu), “and their other garments” (לְבוּשׁ, H4230, “garment,” the same word as the Heb. one); but, as can be seen, this v. is difficult of interpretation in light of the dubious meaning of the Aram. words.

Ezekiel 16:8-14 presents Jerusalem in the figure of a woman regally attired as a bride. She is pictured as clothed “with embroidered cloth” (רִקְמָ֔ה, variegated, woven, or embroidered stuff), “fine linen” (שֵׁ֔שׁ, fine Egyp. linen) and “silk” (מֶֽשִׁי, a costly material for garments, according to Rabb “silk”); and she is shod “with leather” (תָּ֑חַשׁ, a kind of leather or skin used for sandals) and has a “beautiful crown” (עֲטֶ֥רֶת תִּפְאֶ֖רֶת, “crown of splendor” or “beauty”) on her head. She also is pictured as adorned with ornaments (עֲדִי, H6344), such as arm bracelets (צָמִיד֒, H7543, “bracelet”), neck chain (רָבִ֖יד, “chain,” ornament for the neck), a nose ring (נֶ֨זֶמ׃֙, used both as nose ring for women as here, and earring for men and women), and earrings (עָגִיל, H6316, “hoop” or “ring,” prob. “earring”).

Isaiah 3:18-24 presents a fairly long list of clothing and ornamental items, and materials for beautifying, among which are finery for the ankles (i.e., anklets as ornaments), headbands (שָׁבִיס, H8667, “frontband”; cf. Arab., a “sum” or small glass neck-ornament), crescents (שַׂהֲרֹנִים, H8448, “moon” or “crescent,” as an ornament), pendants (נְטִפָה, H5755, “drop,” “pendant,” or “pearl”), bracelets (שֵׁר֒, H9217, “bracelet”), veils (רְעָלָה, H8304, prob. “veil”; RSV “scarf”), headdresses (פְּאֵר, H6996, “headdress,” “turban”), armlets (צְעָדָה֒, H7577, “armlet,” a band clasping the upper arm), sashes (קִשֻּׁרִים, H8005, “bands” or “sashes,” a woman’s ornament which is bound on), charms (לַ֫חַשׁ, H4318, “charms,” or “amulets” worn by women), signet rings (טַבַּ֫עַת, H3192, here “ring” as an ornament), nose rings (cf. Ezek 16:12), “festal robes” (מַחֲלָצﯴת, H4711, “robe of state,” here in Isa 3:22, dress robes of the ladies of Jerusalem), mantles (מַעֲטֶ֫פֶת, H5074, “overtunic” or “mantle”), cloaks (מִטְפַּ֫חַת, H4762, “cloak,” that which is spread over), handbags (חָרִיט, H3038, “bag” or “purse,” made of skin or other material), garments of gauze, or transparent garments (גִּלָּיﯴן, H1663, or “tablets of polished metal,” “mirrors”), linen garments (סָדִין, H6041, “linen cloth” or “wrapper”), turbans for women (צָנִיף, H7565, “turban,” here of women), large veils (רְדִיד, H8100, or “wide wrapper”), girdles (חֲגﯴרָה, H2514, “girdle,” “loin covering,” “belt”) and rich robes (פְּתִיגִיל, H7345, “rich robe”).

Revelation 18:16 pictures Babylon as a woman in her finery with her fine linen garments (βύσσινος, G1115, made of fine linen, “linen garment”; cf. the Heb. term in Isa 3:23) dyed with purple (πορφύρα, G4525) and scarlet (κόκκινος, G3132) and adorned with gold ornaments (χρυσίον, G5992), precious stones (λίθος τίμιος) and pearls (μαργαρίτης, G3449).

When Abraham’s servant went to Nahor in Mesopotamia to obtain Rebekah as a bride for Isaac, the text of Genesis 24 speaks of items of clothing and adornment for her, such as a gold nose ring and arm bracelets (vv. 22, 47), jewelry of silver and gold and clothing (בֶּ֫גֶד֮, H955, a garment, clothing or robe of any kind) (v. 53).

The kind of dress worn by Jesus and His disciples can be deduced from the instructions given by Jesus to the Twelve (Matt 10:5-15; Luke 9:1-6) and to the seventy (10:1-12) as they went out on their preaching missions. Such articles included tunics (χιτών, G5945, “tunic,” “undergarment”), sandals (ὑπόδημα, G5687), belts (ζώνη, G2438, “belt,” “girdle”), money bags or purses (βαλλάντιον, G964) and staff (ῥάβδος, G4811).

The dress of Aaron, the high priest and his sons, was to some extent specialized. In Exodus 28:4 Aaron’s dress was said to have included a breastpiece, an ephod, a robe (מְעִיל, H5077, “robe,” an external garment worn over the inner tunic), a tunic (כֻּתֹּ֫נֶת, H4189, here the high priest’s embroidered tunic), a turban (צָנִיף, H7565, here, the turban for the high priest), and a girdle (אַבְנֵט, H77, the special girdle of the priests, and of the high priest

Exod 28:4, 39; Lev 8:7; 16:4). For Aaron’s sons were made the tunic (kuttonet) and the girdle (’aḇnēṯ, Exod 28:40; 29:9; Lev 8:13, the same girdle as worn by the high priest) and a hat or cap, different from that of the high priest, called the מִגְבָּעָה, H4457, (cf. Exod 29:9; 39:28; Lev 8:13).

For military dress see Armor, Arms.

B. General terms for garments of men and women. The examples given in the preceding discussion present some of the terms for clothing given in the Scriptures. Some of these words together with others often are used to refer to clothing in general, rather than to distinguish individual garments worn.

One such widely used OT term is בֶּ֫גֶד֮, H955, a word to indicate a garment or robe of any kind. It is used for the garment of the poor and needy (Job 22:6), including the widow (Deut 24:17, “you shall not...take a widow’s garment in pledge”) and the prophet (2 Kings 4:39 “lap”) to the elaborate and costly robes of the wealthy (Esth 4:1; Zech 14:14) and royal robes of princes (1 Sam 19:13, the princely garments of David, Saul’s son-in-law), and kings such as David (1 Kings 1:1), Ahab and Jehoshaphat (2 Chron 18:9). Likewise, beged refers to the filthy, torn clothes of lepers (Lev 13:45, 47), the holy garments of the priests (Hag 2:12) and the high priest (Exod 28:2). Beged is used prophetically for the garments of Christ which were to be divided among the soldiers (Ps 22:18; cf. John 19:24). The word is used also for the clothing of the ordinary human being (Ps 102:26; Prov 25:20; Joel 2:13).

מַד, H4496, is used as a general term for clothing in the reference to the clothes under which Ehud’s sword was hid (Judg 3:16) to soldier’s garments (1 Sam 17:38; 18:4; 2 Sam 20:8) and to the coat of the common man (Ps 109:18).

שִׂמְלָה, H8529, term also is used in the general sense of garments as in the instructions to Ruth (3:3) to “put on her best clothes” and in the reminder to Israel that in the wilderness wandering their clothing did not wear out (Deut 8:4). The Lord is pictured as one who gives the sojourner clothing as well as food (Deut 10:18) and these garments are spoken of as such as a a man would cover himself with at night (Exod 22:26; cf. Gen 9:23). Jacob instructs his household to change their garments (Gen 35:2) and David, following the death of the child born to him of Bathsheba “changed his clothes” (2 Sam 12:20). This term can be used to refer to a captive woman’s clothing (Deut 21:13), but can also indicate the garments both of men and women (22:5). Such garments could be used to hold various objects, such as military spoil (Judg 8:25), a sword (1 Sam 21:9), and kitchen equipment (Exod 12:34). This word by metathesis becomes שַׂלְמָה֒, H8515, and as such is used in general for clothing i.e., in reference to the clothes of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:5) and the well preserved garments worn by the Israelites following the Exodus (Deut 29:5).

The general term כְּסוּת, H4064, means “covering,” “clothing,” and is used for a woman’s clothing (Exod 21:10), as well as for the “covering” used to keep a man warm at night (Exod 22:26, 27; Job 24:7).

The general reference to clothes in Ezekiel 27:24 is to the מַכְלוּל, H4815, (a garment made perfectly or gorgeously) and to the גְּלﯴם, H1659, (a “wrapper” or “garment”).

In the NT ἱμάτιον, G2668, can be used generally for clothing (as well as for the outer garment) as seen in reference to an old garment (Matt 9:16; Mark 2:21; Luke 5:36; Heb 1:11; cf. Ps 102:26), in the pl., to clothing (Matt 27:35; cf. John 19:24; Ps 22:18), and to various pieces of clothing contributed as covering for the colt upon which Jesus rode and for the road upon which He traveled (Matt 21:7, 8; Mark 11:7, 8; Luke 19:35, 36). The ἐπενδύτης, G2087, used in John 21:7 can mean just “clothes” or possibly “outer garments.”

C. Individual articles of clothing for the body

1. Materials used. Clothing could be made of sackcloth (Jonah 3:6) or of costly materials (Gen 24:53; Esth 4:4; Zech 14:14; Rev 18:16), and the material itself might be made of sack or coarse hair (שַׂק, H8566, “sack,” “sackcloth”; 1 Kings 21:27; 2 Kings 6:30) or of fine linen as in the case of priestly garments (Lev 6:10; 16:4); and of the fine linen garments given by Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen 41:42), of garments in the time of Ezekiel (16:10) and of the NT (Rev 18:12, 16).

Sometimes garments were made of silk (Ezek 16:10, 13). Garments of such fine materials would be known as “soft raiment” (Luke 7:25). The OT instructed that garments should not be woven out of two different materials (Lev 19:19), such as wool and linen (Deut 22:11), materials from the different animal and plant kingdoms. Some garments would contain special adornments as the collar on Aaron’s robes (Ps 133:2), the embroidered or checker work on his coat (Exod 28:4, 39), and tassels, as indicated in the instructions regarding the cloak of the common Israelite (Deut 22:12). Garments ordinarily seem to have been white (Eccl 9:8; John 20:12; cf. Rev 3:5, 18; 4:4; Matt 17:2), but they were also dyed purple and scarlet (2 Sam 1:24; Prov 31:22; Rev 18:16), and were black in the case of mourning (Rev 6:12; cf. Herm. vis 4, 1, 10). Sometimes garments were scented with perfume as in the case of those of kings (Ps 45:8) and brides (Song of Solomon 4:11).

2. Men’s garments. Men’s outer garments could be expressed by the terms בֶּ֫גֶד֮, H955, (see Isa 36:22; 37:1 where Hezekiah and his men rend their clothes); and by שַׂלְמָה֒, H8515, a new garment with which the prophet Ahijah clothed himself and which he tore into twelve pieces (1 Kings 11:29, 30).

A different Heb. term מְעִיל, H5077, is used in the OT to indicate an “exterior garment” or “robe” worn over an inner tunic or coat. It was like the qumbaz of modern Pal., being a long loosely-fitting robe, prob. sleeveless, worn over all other garments. It was worn by men of rank such as kings and princes (Saul and Jonathan, 1 Sam 18:4; 24:5); foreign princes (Ezek 26:16); David (1 Chron 15:27); prophets (as Samuel, 1 Sam 15:27); and scribes such as Ezra (9:3). It was also a robe of the high priest (the robe of the ephod) made of blue (Exod 28:31; 39:22), which had skirts around which were alternatively colored pomegranates and golden bells, and an opening at the top by which it could be pulled over the head (Exod 39:22-26).

The NT term ἱμάτιον, G2668, could not only refer to clothing in general but also it was used to indicate the outer garment, “the cloak,” in contrast to the χιτών, G5945, the inner garment, “the coat” or “tunic.” It means “cloak” in Matthew 9:20 where the woman “touched the fringe of his (Jesus) garment,” and in the passage where Jesus tells His disciples to sell their “mantles” and buy a sword (Luke 22:36). The purple robe that the soldiers put on Jesus was an outer garment (John 19:2), and Christ’s outer robe is to be inscribed with King of kings and Lord of lords (Rev 19:16). Those who stoned Stephen laid aside their cloaks to free their arms for their task (Acts 7:58). The tearing of the cloak was a sign of grief (14:14). The περιβόλαιον, G4316, a covering something like a “cloak” is pictured as perishable in comparison with the eternal God (Heb 1:12). The στολή, G5124, “robe,” esp. a long-flowing robe, was evidently something like the outer himation, but of superior quality, being the best robe put on the prodigal son (Luke 15:22), the robe worn by triumphant saints (Rev 7:14) and angels (Mark 16:5). Scribes are characterized as walking around in these long robes (12:38).

The principal Heb. word to express the inner garment was the כֻּתֹּ֫נֶת, H4189, the ordinary garment worn by man and woman next to the skin, as seen in the tunics of skin worn by Adam and Eve (Gen 3:21) and the cloth inner garment rent as a sign of extreme grief (2 Sam 15:32). It had a mouth or collar (Job 30:18), and at least in some cases reached to the ankles, and had sleeves (Gen 37:3, 23, 32). These tunic-type garments pictured in the Beni-Hasan painting of about 1890 b.c. (ANEP, 3) are sleeveless, draped over one shoulder, and about calf length. This type of garment was also worn by the high priest (Lev 16:4) and by the priests generally (Exod 29:8; 40:14).

The מִכְנָס, H4829, “drawers,” was a special priestly linen garment worn next to the skin to cover the body from the loins to the thighs (Exod 28:42) to be used by the priest when removing ashes from the altar of burnt offering (Lev 6:10) and by the high priest on the Day of Atonement (Lev 16:4).

The NT χιτών, G5945, “tunic” or “coat,” was worn next to the skin (cf. Matt 5:40; Luke 6:29), and was the seamless garment of Jesus for which the soldiers cast lots (John 19:23, 24). Dorcas had made numbers of these articles (Acts 9:39).

Accessories in addition to clothing included waistcloths and girdles such as the אֵזﯴר, H258, a “waistcloth,” which was a girdle of leather worn by Elijah (2 Kings 1:8), but a waistcloth of linen for Jeremiah (13:1), an article which would be loosened at night (Isa 5:27). There were also the חָגﯴר, H2513, “belt” or “girdle,” used by the soldier to which was attached a sheath with its sword (2 Sam 20:8), and the חֲגﯴרָה, H2514, a “girdle,” or “loin covering” used by Adam and Eve (Gen 3:7) and also as a belt by the warrior (1 Kings 2:5). The אַבְנֵט, H77, was the girdle of the priests (Exod 28:40), the high priest (Exod 28:4, 39), and also of a high official (Isa 22:21). The מֵ֫זַח֮, H4652, “girdle,” was an Egyp. loan word mḏẖ, used in Psalm 109:19. In the NT the ζώνη, G2438, is the “belt” or “girdle,” made of leather (worn by John the Baptist, Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6) or of gold (Rev 1:13), used as an instrument to bind parts of the body (Acts 21:11) and to hold up the long flowing garments for ease in traveling (1 Pet 1:13). Money could also be kept in it (Matt 10:9; Mark 6:8).

A special garment was the אַדֶּ֫רֶת, H168, “mantle” or “cloak,” worn by Elijah the prophet (1 Kings 19:13, 19; 2 Kings 2:8, 13, 14) evidently an insignia of his office (cf. Zech 13:4), and also by the king of Nineveh (Jonah 3:6). Such a distinctive kind of mantle, a beautiful and costly one from Shinar was that which tempted Achan (Josh 7:21, 24).

3. Women’s garments. The term בֶּ֫גֶד֮, H955, could be used also for women’s garments as those of the widow (Deut 24:17), as is likewise true of the שִׂמְלָה, H8529, (Deut 22:5; Isa 4:1), and לְבוּשׁ, H4230, (2 Sam 1:24; Ps 45:14). In the NT the woman wore the outer garment, also named the himation (Acts 9:39; 1 Tim 2:9; 1 Pet 3:3).

The inner tunic, the כֻּתֹּ֫נֶת, H4189, was also worn by the woman, as by Eve (Gen 3:21) and the king’s daughter (2 Sam 13:18, 19), and could be put off at night (Song of Solomon 5:3). The סָדִין, H6041, a “linen wrapper” or “garment,” is in the list of women’s lingerie in Isaiah 3:23. In the NT the women also wore a garment called the χιτών, G5945, (Matt 10:10; Acts 9:39).

As to accessories, the women’s girdle is mentioned in Isaiah 3:24, presumably being similar to the ordinary sash or belt worn by men.

D. Footwear. The normal covering for the foot was the sandal, expressed by the word נַ֫עַל, H5837, as in reference to the sandals of the Israelites in the wilderness journey (Deut 29:5) and those worn out, patched ones of the Gibeonites (Josh 9:5; cf. 1 Kings 2:5), which evidences the general practice of wearing some sort of protective covering for the bottom of the foot. Sandals were removed in mourning (Ezek 24:17, 23) and when standing on holy ground (Exod 3:5; Josh 5:15; Acts 7:33). Evidently there were other times, however, when a person would not wear his sandals or at least when an extra pair of sandals would be carried (Matt 3:11; Mark 6:9; Luke 10:4). They were taken off when sleeping (Acts 12:8). This sandal was bound on the foot by means of a thong according to Genesis 14:23; Isaiah 5:27 (cf. Mark 1:7). Another Heb. word for footwear was the סְאﯴן, H6007, (prob. a loan word from Akkad. šênu, “shoe,” “sandal,” of leather) but its one OT use in Isaiah 9:5 refers to a soldier’s “boot” or “shoe.”

In the NT the term for footwear is the ὑπόδημα, G5687, a “sandal” or “leather” sole fastened to the foot by straps, an article referred to in Matthew 3:11; Luke 3:16; 15:22. Another term was σανδάλιον, G4908, a leather or wood sole also strapped to the foot (Mark 6:9 and Acts 12:8).

Women, too, wore sandals as evidenced by Song of Solomon 7:1 and Ezekiel 16:10, in the latter case the footwear being of leather. Shoes were so worn as evidenced in the Beni Hasan painting (ANEP, 3) where men are shown in thonged sandals but the women in shoes with a white border around the top, completely covering the foot and coming up over the ankle.

E. Headwear. Infrequent are references to headdress. There was the פְּאֵר, H6996, a “headdress,” or “turban,” worn by the bridegroom (Isa 61:10; the RSV, “garland”), by priests (Exod 39:28; Ezek 44:18), and by elegant women (Isa 3:20). It could be worn as a sign of joy (Isa 61:3, “garland”), the opposite of mourning (Ezek 24:17, 23). The מִצְנֶ֫פֶת, H5200, was the linen turban of the high priest (Exod 28:4, 37, 39; Lev 8:9), but it could also be a sign of royalty (Ezek 21:26). The מִגְבָּעָה, H4457, however, was the turban or headdress of the priest (Exod 28:40), possibly conical in shape (Exod 29:9; Lev 8:13). Compare the conical hats shown in ANEP, 46, 47, 61, 355. The כּﯴ֫בַע, H3916, was the soldier’s helmet (1 Sam 17:5; Jer 46:4; cf. περικεφαλαία, G4330, the helmet of Eph 6:17 and 1 Thess 5:8).

Besides the headdress of Isaiah 3:20, women wore the צָנִיף, H7565, (“turban,” Isa 3:23). They also wore the face-veil (צָעִיף, H7581, Gen 24:65; 38:14, 19) and a wide or large veil, the רְדִיד, H8100, which evidently was to cover the upper part of the body (Song of Solomon 5:7; Isa 3:23). The more elaborate tiara or turban (μίτρα) also used by women such as Judith (16:8), does not occur in the NT.

F. Ornaments. Ornaments worn with clothing included the finger ring, טַבַּ֫עַת, H3192, used as a symbol of authority (Gen 41:42; Esth 3:10; 8:2) and also as an instrument to seal official documents (Esth 3:12; 8:8). The חﯴתָמ֒, H2597, the seal or signet ring was hung by a cord around the neck (Gen 38:18), and also worn on the right hand (Jer 22:24). The נֶ֫זֶם, H5690, the “ring of gold” of Job 42:11, was the customary golden earrings of the Ishmaelites (Judg 8:24-26), and was worn by men and women (Exod 32:2, 3); but it was also used as a woman’s ornamental nose-ring (Gen 24:47; Isa 3:21; Ezek 16:12). The δακτύλιος, G1234, in Luke 15:22 refers to a ring but the σφραγίς, G5382, of Revelation 5:1; 7:2 is only a seal.

Royalty wore crescent-shaped ornaments (שַׂהֲרֹנִים, H8448) (Judg 8:26) (as did also women, Isa 3:18) and also eardrops or pendants (אֶצְעָדָה, H731, 2 Sam 1:10), which other men and women also wore (Num 31:50; cf. Isa 3:20).

Beyond the above, women were adorned with a number of ornaments called עֲדִי, H6344, “ornaments” (2 Sam 1:24; Jer 2:32), including jewels of silver and gold (Gen 24:53; 1 Tim 2:9). The bracelet (צָמִיד֒, H7543) worn on the wrist (Ezek 23:42) or arm (Gen 24:22, 30; Num 31:50; Ezek 16:11) and the chain for the neck (רְדִיד, H8100, Ezek 16:11), among others, were important items of adornments. See Cloth.

Bibliography A. Edersheim, Sketches of Jewish Social Life in the Days of Christ (n.d.), 216-222; A. Edersheim, Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah, vol. 1 (1901), 620-627; vol. II, 278, 279; J. B. Pritchard, Ancient Near East in Pictures (1954).