GAMES. Though many amusements, entertainments, diversions, and games were known in the Near E in Bible times, there are, however, few references to them in the Bible. In interpreting the activities of the ancients, it is often difficult to distinguish sacred and secular, ritual and amusement. Furthermore, entertainment ranged from the enjoyment of fine arts to the sadistic pleasure of the physical torture of captives or slaves, from the refined performances in the Gr. theater to the cruel gladiatorial contests of Rome. Since material is considerable from antiquity concerning amusements—but little relating directly to the Bible—it is best to sketch ancient amusements generally and to note relevant Bible passages.

1. Children’s games. Children love to play. The prophet Zechariah described prosperity and peace as a time when “the streets of the city shall be full of boys and girls playing in its streets” (Zech 8:5). Children’s active games are depicted on Egyp. tomb walls from the period of the Old Kingdom, e.g. in the mastabas of Ptahhotep and Mereruka. Though often the scenes are difficult to interpret and the hieroglyphic legends are enigmatic in a number of instances, the activities can be described with some certainty—wrestling bouts, gymnastic games, and other exercises involving agility. Archeological excavations have unearthed dolls and simple mechanical toys of several kinds from Egyp. burials. A number of balls have been found, and it is probable that most of these were for children’s play. Children also engaged in games of make-believe. Jesus described the unresponsive and stubborn generation to which He ministered as being “like children sitting in the market places and calling to their playmates, ‘We piped to you, and you did not dance; we wailed, and you did not mourn’” (Matt 11:16, 17).

2. Adult amusement: active sports. It appears that in Pal., hunting and fishing were means of livelihood rather than recreation. As a shepherd, David defended his flock against incursions of predatory animals, killing marauding bears and lions by hand (1 Sam 17:34-36); but this was performed from duty, not for amusement. On the other hand, kings and nobles of Egypt and Assyria hunted dangerous animals for diversion; reliefs, paintings, and inscrs. tell of their hunting exploits. Wealthy officials in Egypt participated in fishing or waterfowling for fun. Their sport, pursued in the marshy areas of the river, was termed shmh-ib, “distraction of heart,” equivalent to “recreation,” or “enjoyment.” The most sporting type of waterfowling was done with a throwstick, or even with bow and arrow; but birds were also captured with a clapnet. Fishing was usually represented as a form of harpooning or spearing, but sometimes the tombowner is shown using hook and line; bowfishing also is represented in ancient Egypt.

Swimming was practiced, apparently as a practical skill and not as a recreation. In the Bible, swimming is mentioned (Isa 25:11; Ezek 47:5), but not as an amusement.

Competitive athletics existed from very early times, but found its greatest development in the Gr. games (see Athlete, Athletics). Wrestling, in particular, was well-known; evidence for it comes from both Mesopotamia and Egypt. In Egypt hundreds of wrestling groups are shown in the tomb art (see Wrestle). Running, boxing, rowing, archery, and singlestick, or wandfighting, were also known. Participation often appears to be associated with the military or religion, and little of competitive sport could be called amusement for the participants. There is evidence from Medinet Habu and elsewhere that such competitions were performed to entertain the king and officials, or as part of the celebration of religious-political festivals.

In the OT, runners are mentioned as bearers of messages for the army or the king (cf. 2 Sam 18:19ff.). Job lamented, “My days are swifter than a runner” (9:25). The psalmist indicates that “a strong man runs its course with joy” (19:5). Swiftness of foot was a desirable manly quality, and the passage from the Psalms indicates that pleasure was derived from the exercise of strength in running.

Dancing and various acrobatic or rhythmic movements were associated with religious ritual, festivals, and even funerals. Miriam and the Israelite women played timbrels and danced after the Israelites crossed the sea (Exod 15:20). Dancing was associated with the occasion of the worship of the golden calf at Mount Sinai (1 Cor 10:7). When the Ark of the covenant was brought to Jerusalem, “David danced before the Lord with all his might” (2 Sam 6:14). Social dancing was unknown, and dances involving persons of both sexes are not depicted.

Various forms of ball playing were practiced in Egypt; women are shown taking part in such games at Beni Hasan. Possibly there was even a form of ritual in which a ball was struck with a stick or club. Playing ball is not mentioned in the Bible, though a reference to a ball appears (Isa 22:18).

3. Sedentary, or inactive games. Sedentary games are widely evidenced throughout the Near E, esp. board games of various kinds. Beautiful gaming boards and boxes have been found, as well as informal playing squares crudely scratched on flat rock surfaces. Playing draughts appears in the Book of Gates and is represented in the funerary art. Scenes at the High Gate of Medinet Habu show Ramses III and female members of his family indulging in such play. The representation of the playing board is found even in hieroglyphic writing as the biliteral sign mn.

Dice were used for determining moves in certain board games. The casting of lots is often referred to in the Bible, but always as a means of making decisions, whether of identity, procedure, or possession. Roman soldiers who crucified Jesus cast lots for His seamless tunic (Matt 27:35; Mark 15:24; Luke 23:34; John 19:23, 24; Ps 22:18).

4. Spectator, or passive amusements. The ancients were apparently more inclined to participate than to watch, but one may suppose that there were many spectators who observed religious ceremonies and royal festivities, with their attendant entertainment. The Philistines who congregated at the temple of Dagon in Gaza called for Samson to be brought to provide entertainment for them (Judg 16:25, 27).

People enjoyed hearing stories told, and eloquent speeches were appreciated, as in the Egyp. story of the Eloquent Peasant (cf. Ezek 33:32). The NT Athenians took an avid interest in telling or hearing something new (Acts 17:21).

Magicians amused people in ancient Egypt, as the Papyrus Westcar shows, but the Egypt. magicians mentioned in the Bible were involved in serious matters (cf. Gen 41:8; Exod 7:11, 22; 8:18, 19). Magicians in Babylon were also mentioned at the time of Daniel (Dan 1:20; 2:2, 27).

Throughout the ancient Near E, banquets were held for entertainment. Many banquet scenes are shown in the Egyp. tombs, and many references to feasts appear in the Bible. Participants enjoyed abundant food and drink—sometimes to excess—and were entertained by dancers and musicians. Such entertainment was common at Egyp. banquets, and it is evident that Salome’s dancing at the celebration of Herod’s birthday pleased the viewers (Matt 14:6; Mark 6:22).

Music was an important diversion of antiquity. The ancients, like their modern descendants, were well aware of melody and rhythm. The beat of the drum or the clapping of hands, the playing of flute, trumpet, or stringed instruments, and the use of the human voice are clearly represented in the tomb art and well documented in the Biblical lit. (cf. Ezek 33:32). Music was, of course, important in religious ceremonies and at affairs of state, but it was common at private parties and even in the solitude of the shepherd’s care for his sheep. David provided music for Saul as an amusement, a therapy, and even as a spiritual exercise (cf. 1 Sam 16:18, 23).

The Hellenization of the Near E introduced many Gr. amusements. Hippodromes, stadiums, and theaters sprang up as Gr. culture pervaded the earlier lands of the Bible. The NT missionary efforts enlarged the immediate geography of the Biblical narrative and widened its cultural horizons as well. Paul alluded to the Gr. athletic games (see Athlete, Athletics). He also declared that the apostles had been made a θέατρον, G2519, (“a theater, a spectacle”) “to the world, to angels, and to men” (1 Cor 4:9). In the same epistle he also mentioned the Rom. amusement of watching fights with wild animals (θηριομαχέω, G2562, 1 Cor 15:32). The pagan world of the NT period was as absorbed with amusements as is the present age. The Christians were acquainted with the culture of their time, but they did not occupy themselves with it unduly, nor did they become engrossed in its less desirable features.

Bibliography E. Falkener, Games Ancient and Oriental (1892); I. Lexova, Ancient Egyptian Dances (1935); H. Hickmann, 45 siècles de musique dans l’Égypte ancienne (1956); C. De Vries, Attitudes of the Ancient Egyptians toward Physical-Recreative Activities (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, 1960). Hickmann, Musikgeschichte in Bildern. Ägypten (1961).