RESURRECTION (ἀνάστασις, G414, a rising; ἔγερσις, G1587, a raising) in the Biblical sense denotes the divine miracle of restoring a deceased person to life in body and soul, either to temporal life, as was the case with Lazarus (John 11:38ff.), or to eternal, glorified life, to which Christ was raised and those who are His will be raised at His return. Scripture also teaches a resurrection to eternal punishment in body and soul of those who lived and died without Christ (Matt 10:28; John 5:28, 29; Acts 24:15). When the word “resurrection” is qualified, as a rule the expression “the resurrection of (or from) the dead” is used (Matt 22:31; Luke 20:37; Acts 4:2; 17:32; 23:6; 24:21; 26:23; 1 Cor 15:12ff.). The resurrection of the believers is sometimes called “the resurrection of the just” (Luke 14:14; Acts 24:15) or “the resurrection of life” (John 5:29); that of the unbelievers, “the resurrection of judgment” (John 5:29) or “of the unjust” (Acts 24:15). The expression, “resurrection of the body,” frequently used in the Creeds is based on Scripture (i.e. Matt 27:52; Rom 8:11; 1 Cor 15:35, 42-44; Phil 3:21). The Early Church, evidenced by the early Fathers and the Creeds, introduced the phrase “resurrection of the flesh,” which is still found in various Creeds. The Church adopted this expression because many heretics, denying an eternal future for the body, understood the word “dead” as meaning “dead souls.” By confessing that the flesh will be raised, the Church emphasized the Biblical truth that the dead will be raised in their bodies of flesh. Though the expression is not found in Scripture itself, there is good reason to retain it, for many explain the word “body” in the phrase “resurrection of the body” as denoting the “self” or “person,” with the exclusion of the physical body.

I. Known from the infallible Scriptures. Paganism was and is without the resurrection hope (Eph 2:12; 1 Thess 4:13). Greek philosophy taught the “immortality of the soul,” the soul being considered divine; of the body, being matter and therefore considered evil, there was no hope. Paul’s proclamation of the resurrection was ridiculed in Greece (Acts 17:32). Liberal theology, denying the infallibility of the Bible, generally reduces the resurrection hope to a modern version of the immortality of the soul; i.e. man’s true “self” continues to exist in an immaterial, ghost-like spirit body. To Karl Barth, who also rejects the infallibility of the Bible in the traditional sense of the word the end means “eternalization”; i.e. after this life man will eternally exist in the mind of God, not in reality (Church Dogmatics III/2, 698ff.; III/3, 99ff.; 257ff.). According to Scripture the soul is not divine or as such immortal, nor is the body evil. Created in God’s image, man was “very good” in every aspect of his being (Gen 1:27, 31; 2:21) and was destined to eternal life in body and soul (Gen 3:22). Even after the Fall man does not need deliverance from the body; he rather needs that his body and soul be delivered from the power of sin and death, which Christ grants to His believers (John 6:40; 11:24-26; 1 Cor 15:54-56).

II. The work of God and Christ. It is God who by an almighty creative act raised the dead (Matt 22:29; 1 Cor 6:14; 15:38; 2 Cor 1:9; 4:14). This work, however, is mainly accomplished through agents: prophets and apostles (1 Kings 17:17ff.; 2 Kings 4:32ff.; Acts 20:10) and particularly through God’s Son, Jesus Christ, who is the Father’s unique agent (John 6:39, 40). He Himself is the Resurrection and the Life (John 11:25). He brought life and immortality to light (2 Tim 1:10) and His resurrection in glory guarantees that of those who are His (1 Cor 15:20-23, 47-49; 1 Thess 4:14ff.). Though Christ as God’s agent will also raise those who lived and died without Him, their resurrection is not the result of His redemptive work, nor is it redemptive in nature. He raises them as the divinely appointed Judge (John 5:26-30), from whose hand each one will receive “evil, according to what he has done in the body” (2 Cor 5:10).

III. Resurrection and resurrection hope in the OT.

A. The historical record. In the OT account three persons were raised from the dead: the widow’s son at Zarephath (1 Kings 17:17ff.), the son of the Shunammite (2 Kings 4:32ff.), and the man whose dead body was cast into Elisha’s grave (2 Kings 13:21). The claim that the widow’s son had not died cannot be sufficiently substantiated. Although these resurrections meant only a temporal restoration to earthly life, they undoubtedly strengthened Israel’s faith in the almighty power of Yahweh, as the God who was able even to raise the dead.

B. Lack of early and frequent evidences of the resurrection hope. The OT contains only a few and rather late statements which give clear evidence of an eschatological resurrection hope. This by no means implies that such a hope was unknown in Israel. To God’s people the emphasis was upon a long life on earth (Exod 20:12) with but a dim view of an eternal future for the whole man. This is because God’s redemptive work in Christ was only gradually revealed. The full resurrection hope could therefore not be known nor enjoyed until Christ had conquered death. The true believers in Israel must have known that their mighty God of whom Moses sang, “I kill and I make alive” (Deut 32:39), had more in store for them than this life and not only for their souls but also for their bodies, for the two are inseparable according to OT teachings. Of Abraham, the writer of Hebrews (11:19) says that “he considered that God was able to raise men even from the dead,” whereas 11:8-16 states that the patriarchs were looking forward to “the city which has foundations,” desiring “a better country” than Canaan, and that “These all died in faith.” To these passages full justice is done only if one regards them as implying the resurrection hope however vague in that early stage. This hope must have grown when in later days God’s resurrection power was clearly shown (see III A). The “translations” of Enoch (Gen 5:22-24; Heb 11:5) and Elijah (2 Kings 2:11, 12) who obtained eternal life as men of flesh, must also have strengthened the hope of an eternal future for man in his completeness, i.e. body and soul. It is, therefore, unwarranted and unnecessary to look for the source of Israel’s resurrection hope in some ancient “world folk tales,” or to Iranian and other teachings concerning “a common eschatological event” (IDB, I, p. 41).

C. The resurrection hope expressed. The main OT passages that call for consideration are the following: Hannah sings (1 Sam 2:6), “The Lord kills and brings to life; he brings down to Sheol and raises up.” Though some scholars claim that Hannah referred to a real resurrection, the context seems to exclude this interpretation. The Psalm refers to what the Lord regularly is doing on earth. Verse 6 therefore is to be understood as stating that the Lord is able to take away human life as well as to preserve it, even before the gates of death. (For elaborate interpretations of this and other Scripture passages briefly dealt with in this article, the author may refer to his book, The Nature of the Resurrection Body [1964]). Job (19:25-27) wrote, “For I know that my Redeemer lives, and at last he will stand upon the earth; and after my skin has been thus destroyed, then from my flesh I shall see God, whom I shall see on my side, and my eyes shall behold, and not another. My heart faints within me.” Though most modern commentators deny that Job is speaking of an eschatological resurrection and judgment, the logical line of thought seems to favor the so-called post-mortem interpretation: Job was sure that after his death God would stand up as his gōēl and vindicate him. In accordance with the RSV, the Heb expression mibbesari is best rendered, “from my flesh.” With his own eyes, out of his restored flesh, having been raised from the dead, Job will see his divine Judge vindicating him. Claiming that such a resurrection hope is unthinkable at such an early stage is begging the question (cf. III, B.). Psalm 16:9-11ff: “Therefore my heart is glad, and my soul rejoices; my body also dwells secure. For thou dost not give me up to Sheol, or let thy godly one see the Pit. Thou dost show me the path of life; in thy presence there is fulness of joy, in thy right hand are pleasures for evermore.” The parallelism membrorum in v. 9 makes it necessary to understand v. 9b as speaking of safety for the body (or, flesh—the person) in this life. Consequently v. 10, starting with “For,” cannot be understood as referring to a future resurrection. The statements in this passage, however, speak in such general and absolute terms of the complete victory of life, that David, under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, must have had a prophetic glimpse of the everlasting, glorious life which his Son, Jesus Christ, was to bring to light in His resurrection (Acts 2:26ff.; 13:35ff.). Isaiah 25:8a: “He will swallow up death forever and the Lord God will wipe away tears from all faces....” This v. is not a gloss but quite a natural sequel to v. 7, where it is stated that the veil (of mourning and grief, cf. 2 Sam 15:30; Esth 6:12; Jer 14:3) that is spread over all nations will be destroyed. Isaiah 25:8a explains why this symbol can be destroyed: death itself will be completely destroyed by Yahweh. Within the framework of a moving description of the eschatological feast to be made “for all peoples” (v. 6), v. 8 speaks clearly of the absolute destruction of death in the Lord’s great Day (cf. 1 Cor 15:54; Rev 21:4). Isaiah 26:19: “Thy dead shall live, their bodies (better in ASV: “my dead bodies”) shall rise. O dwellers in the dust, awake and sing for joy!...” In contrast to v. 14 (which does not imply that there is no future resurrection, but that Israel’s oppressors are dead and therefore unable to harm God’s people), v. 19 prophesies the eschatological, physical resurrection of the righteous dead; i.e. those faithful Israelites who had died under the “other lords” of v. 13. That the prophet does not speak of a “general” resurrection does by no means imply that at the time such a resurrection was unknown. The comfort given to the true Israelites would rather presuppose the belief in it. (Cf. Isaiah 25:8a.) Ezekiel 37:1-10 portrays the vision of the valley of dry bones, lying disconnected and lifeless but revived by the almighty power of God’s Spirit, this revival implying resurrection. According to some, this vision, which is a prophecy of Israel’s restoration as a nation (vv. 11-14), presupposes the common belief in a bodily, future resurrection of the dead. This may be so, but it cannot be conclusively substantiated. Daniel also predicted a resurrection (12:2, 3): “And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting contempt....” The prophet comforted the faithful Israelites for whom an unprecedented tribulation was looming in the near future (v. 1). Many of them would have to lay down their lives for Yahweh’s sake. These martyrs were comforted by the assurance of a bodily resurrection in glory whereas those who denied the Lord would be raised to “shame and everlasting contempt.” A general resurrection of the dead is obviously not intended here, i.e. not because Daniel did not believe in it, but only because he wanted to comfort his brethren who would have to endure suffering and death for righteousness’ sake. Even so, his prophecy gives unmistakable evidence of faith in an eschatological, bodily resurrection. Hosea 13:14: “Shall I ransom them from the power of Sheol? Shall I redeem them from Death? O Death, where are your plagues? O Sheol, where is your destruction? Compassion is hid from my eyes.” Paul speaks of the complete victory over death and the grave in words reminiscent of the above (1 Cor 15:55). This does not imply that Hosea 13:14 predicted the resurrection of the dead. The whole context speaks of judgment on God’s unfaithful people and the natural interpretation of v. 14 is that no one will be able to save Ephraim from destruction so that Death and Sheol could be defied. On the contrary, the Lord will have no mercy. Conclusion from the above references: The OT teaches with varying degrees of explicitness the resurrection of the dead, a doctrine which is divinely inspired and not derived from pagan sources.

IV. Resurrection in noncanonical scriptures. In the noncanonical lit. of the ancient Judeo-Christian period (DSS, Targums, Talmud, Apoc. and Pseud.) many references to the resurrection may be found. Conceptions and interpretations of the various passages differ widely. Space does not permit the discussion of these passages most of which are dealt with by T. H. Gaster, IDB, IV, pp. 41-43.

V. Resurrection in the NT.

A. Nouns and verbs. ̓Ανάστασις, when used of a dead person: resurrection either spiritual (Luke 2:34; cf. Eph. 2:1; 5:14) or physical (of Jesus, and all who are to be raised at the last day: passim in the NT). Another noun, ἔγερσις, G1587, lit. awakening, is used only of Jesus’ resurrection (Matt 27:53). Related verbs, frequently employed, viz. ἀνίστημι, G482, (anistemi) and ἐγείρω, G1586, can be transitive (raise up) with the emphasis on God’s initiative and activity, esp. with regard to Jesus’ resurrection (e.g. Acts 2:24, 32; 3:26; 17:31) or intransitive (rise) with the emphasis on the activity of the dead, resulting from God’s quickening power (passim in the NT; in the gospels frequently used for Jesus’ resurrection).

B. The historical record. 1. Raisings from the dead, other than Jesus’ resurrection. Some of these raisings were performed by Jesus Himself: Jairus’ daughter (Mark 5:35ff. and parallel passages), the widow’s son (Luke 7:11ff.) and Lazarus (John 11:11ff.).

When Jesus died many deceased saints were raised (Matt 27:52, 53), whereas Peter was the agent in the raising of Dorcas (Acts 9:36ff.) and Paul in that of Eutychus (Acts 20:9ff.). The raisings by Jesus were signs of His Messiahship. Through Him the new age, bringing victory over sin and death, had come (Matt 11:5; Luke 7:22; John 11:25). The mysterious resurrection of the “many saints” pointed in the same direction, since it coincided with Jesus’ death; and also the raisings of Dorcas and Eutychus, for the apostles always acted as Jesus’ agents in various acts of healing (Acts 3:6; 16:18; 2 Cor 12:12. cf. Matt 10:8). Since all these raisings were only signs of Jesus’ resurrection power, they meant only a return to this mortal life; the final victory over death waits until the End.

2. Jesus’ resurrection, taking place on Sunday morning after His death and burial on Friday evening (Mark 15:42ff.; 16:2ff. and parallel passages), differs from all other raisings as Jesus Himself differs from all men. He is God incarnate (John 1:14), the last Adam, representing sinful and lost mankind (Rom 5:12ff.; 1 Cor 15:45ff.), the only Mediator between God and man (1 Tim 2:5), came to destroy the works of the devil who has the power of death (Heb 2:14; 1 John 3:8) and to save sinners (1 Tim 1:15). In that capacity He died “for our trespasses” (Rom 4:25) “a ransom for all” (1 Tim 2:6), and was “raised for our justification” (Romans 4:25), “designated Son of God in power...by his resurrection from the dead” (Rom 1:4), raised in a “glorious body” (Phil 3:21) never to die again (Rom 6:9), the great High Priest “by the power of an indestructible life” (Heb 7:16), the source of true, glorious and everlasting life spiritually and physically for all who are in Him (John 3:16; 6:56ff.; 11:25, 26; 14:19; 2 Cor 13:4; 2 Tim 1:10; Rev 1:18). The earliest record of Jesus’ resurrection and of some appearances of the risen Lord is given by Paul through divine revelation (1 Cor 15:3ff.; cf. 11:23). According to Paul the preaching of the Gospel as well as faith in Christ are futile without Christ’s resurrection (1 Cor 15:17). Further detailed descriptions of the empty tomb and the appearances, on which the Church’s faith in Jesus’ resurrection is based (Acts 1:3), are to be found in the gospels (Matt 28; Mark 16; Luke 24; John 20 and 21). For a full discussion of Jesus’ resurrection, see Resurrection of Jesus Christ.

C. The resurrection of the dead. 1. Christ is to raise and judge all dead. Unequivocally the NT teaches the raising of all the dead, those in Christ as well as those without Him, by Jesus Christ who will judge them according to their works (John 5:28, 29; Acts 17:31; Rom 14:10; 2 Cor 5:10; Rev 11:18; 20:11-15). The end of God’s ways cannot be the intermediate state, in which man exists without his body (Heb 12:23; Rev 20:4). Man in his totality was created for eternity, whereas the judgment will be concerned about what everyone has done in the body (2 Cor 5:10); hence a bodily resurrection, either to eternal life or to eternal judgment under the wrath of God (Matt 10:28; 25:34; John 3:36; 5:29; Rev 20:15). Though Christ as the divinely appointed Judge (Acts 17:31) will raise all the dead, only the resurrection of His believers, to life eternal, is guaranteed by Christ’s resurrection (1 Cor 15:20ff.; 1 Thess 4:14). From 1 Corinthians 15:23 it seems clear that “all” in v. 22 denotes all who belong to Christ. Since the essence of Scripture is the Gospel of salvation, little is said in the NT about the resurrection of those without Christ. All the emphasis, esp. in the great chapter of the resurrection (1 Cor 15) is on that of the believers.

2. When will the dead be raised? According to the general teachings of the NT and particularly according to those of Paul (1 Cor 15:51, 52 and 1 Thess 4:16), the resurrection of the deceased believers will take place at the Second Coming of the Lord when also those in Christ who at that moment are alive will be changed. All believers of all the ages constitute one company of glorified saints, who are privileged to meet their Redeemer in the air. After having first been acquitted before Christ’s glorious throne and welcomed into His Father’s kingdom (Matt 25:31-40), they will participate in pronouncing judgment on the unbelievers and fallen angels (Matt 25:41ff.; 1 Cor 6:2, 3). Whether the unbelievers will be raised at the same time as the believers, or as some suggest, somewhat later, cannot be determined with certainty.

A controversial subject among evangelicals is the question whether there will be only one physical, general resurrection, or at first a partial one and after that a final general resurrection. Those favoring the latter opinion appeal to Revelation 20:4ff., which states that those who were faithful during the reign of Antichrist “came to life, and reigned with Christ a thousand years. The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand years were ended. This is the first resurrection....” Others, who are of the opinion that there will be only one bodily resurrection, point to the fact that apart from the controversial text in Revelation 20, nowhere in Scripture is a first resurrection to be distinguished from a second. They therefore understand the “first resurrection” (Rev 20:5) to be the promotion of the faithful saints to glorious life with Christ immediately after death in the intermediate state (cf. Phil 1:23; Heb 12:22). Space does not permit one to discuss this exegetical problem any further. (See Millennium.)

VI. The resurrection body.

A. A body of flesh. Most present-day theologians reject the idea of a resurrection in a body of flesh, either on so-called scientific grounds, which implies a denial of God’s power (cf. Mark 12:24), or because they regard the flesh as the source or seat of sin. According to them man will be raised as a spirit, or in an “angelic,” immaterial body. Though in Scripture and particularly in Paul’s writings the word “flesh” sometimes denotes man’s evil nature, nowhere is the flesh-body as such proclaimed evil and the source of sin. It is the heart, the religious center of man’s personality, which is evil (Gen 8:21; Mark 7:14ff.; Rom 2:5). The flesh-body is an ethically neutral medium which, as far as believers are concerned, belongs to Christ (1 Cor 6:15), is a temple of the Holy Spirit (1 Cor 6:19), and a means to serve God (Rom 6:12, 13). That in Scripture the word “body” would denote man’s “self” or “spiritual personality,” as some aver, cannot be substantiated. The resurrection of the dead in a body of flesh is guaranteed by Jesus’ resurrection in a body of “flesh and bones,” with scars of His wounds visible, and capable of being touched and of eating food (Luke 24:38-43; Acts 10:41). At His ascension Jesus did not discard this flesh-body, as is clear from Acts 1:11; Philippians 3:21; Revelation 1:17. Since the resurrected believers will be like the risen Christ (1 Cor 15:49; Phil 3:21; 1 John 3:2), they too will be raised in their bodies of flesh. (Cf. 1 Cor 15:35-42.) Only in this way is man saved in his totality, and able to live on a new earth (Isa 65:17ff.; 66:22; Matt 5:5; Rev 21:1-3).

B. Scripture passages seemingly denying a physical resurrection. Jesus told the Sadducees (Matt 22:30; Mark 12:25) that the resurrected saints will be like angels. The context, however, makes it clear that the resemblance will lie in the fact that after the resurrection there will be no marriage. Luke recorded the reason for this change in 20:36: “they cannot die any more,” which means that reproduction is no longer needed to fill the places that have become vacant because of death. There is no reference here to the nature of the resurrection body, and the passages quoted do not even imply that the distinction between male and female will be abolished. The resurrection body is called a spiritual body (1 Cor 15:44). This, however, does not mean that it will be a body consisting of spirit. The statement characterizes the resurrection body as one completely filled and governed by the Holy Spirit, as is more extensively shown sub voce “spiritual body.” Another statement by Paul, viz. that “flesh and blood cannot inherit the kingdom of God” (1 Cor 15:50) is often considered to exclude the idea of a resurrection body of flesh. The apostle, however, teaches something entirely different. The expression “flesh and blood” never denotes the “substance” of the body, but man in his totality as a frail and perishable creature (Matt 16:17; Gal 1:16; Eph 6:12; Heb 2:14). It has the same meaning in 1 Corinthians 15:50, shown by the fact that in the parallel clause (v. 50b) the word “corruption” is used, which obviously denotes the whole man in his corruptibility and not the substance of his body. The entire context shows that man, as a frail, perishable creature, cannot enter God’s glo rious, eschatological kingdom. He first must be made immortal, imperishable, powerful, and glorious. There is no denial of a resurrection in a body of flesh.

C. Identity and change. Though the resurrection body will be essentially identical to the present body in that it is a body of flesh, there will be a tremendous change regarding the conditions of its existence. Paul emphasized the necessity of such a change for the dead as well as for those who are living when Jesus returns (note the word “must” in v. 53). This change is necessary because the resurrected believer enters upon a new world of impeccable perfection and heavenly glory (1 Cor 15:47-49) like that of Christ (2 Cor 3:18), a glory which will differ in accordance with the individual believer’s dedication to the Lord in this life (Dan 12:3; 1 Cor 3:14, 15; 2 Cor 9:6). In these wonderful resurrection bodies the believers will be able to ascend to heaven and meet their returning Lord in the air (1 Thess 4:16, 17). The change will be so miraculous and spectacular that no one is able to form any adequate conception of it on this side of the grave, or give a trustworthy detailed description.

Bibliography R. S. Candlish, Life in the Risen Saviour (1858); W. Milligan, The Resurrection of the Dead (1894); B. F. Westcott, The Gospel of the Resurrection (1906); J. F. Darragh, The Resurrection of the Flesh (1921); A. Oepke, “Anistemi,” TWNT I (1933); E. Käsemann, Leib and Leib Christi (1933); A. Oepke, “Egeiro,” TWNT II (1935); K. Barth, Die Auferstehung der Toten (1935); W. Bieder, “Auferstehung des Fleisches oder des Leibes,” in Theologische Zeitschrift (August, 1945); H. Birkeland, “The Belief in the Resurrection of the Dead in the Old Testament,” ST III (1950-1951); J. A. T. Robinson, The Body (1952); J. A. Jeremias, “Flesh and Blood Cannot Inherit the Kingdom of God,” NTS (February, 1956); O. Cullmann, “Proleptic Deliverance of the Body,” in The Early Church (1956); Immortality of the Soul or Resurrection of the Dead (1958); L. E. Boliek, The Resurrection of the Flesh (1962); M. E. Dahl, The Resurrection of the Body (1962); M. C. Tenney, The Reality of the Resurrection (1963); J. A. Schep, The Nature of the Resurrection Body (1964). In addition: chapters on Resurrection in dogmatic works and books on Eschatology.